/^ 


l/«*  > 


BOSTON,  September  i,   1S78. 


Dear  Sir  : 


As  the  Author  of  this  book  is  connected  with  our  house, 
any  further  information  which  you  may  wish  on  any  subject 
contained  in  the  work  will  be  cheerfully  furnished  upon  receipt 
of  inquiry;  and  we  respectfully  solicit  a  share  of  your  patron- 
age for  Dyestuffs,  Chemicals,  etc. 

After  a  careful  perusal  of  this  work  you  will  kindly  favor 
the  Author  by  sending  your  WRITTEX  OPTXIOX  in 
regard  to  it. 

Very   truly   yours, 

F.   WOODMAN    &   CO., 

So/e  A  gen's. 

No.  44  Kii.iiv  Street, 


Boston. 


4^ 


THE 

AMERICAN  DYER, 

(EXLARGED  AND  RFAMSF.D) : 
A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON   THE 

COLOEING  OF  AVOOL,  COTTON,  YAEN  AND  CLOTH, 

ALSO,   CAI.ICO-PR1XTIXG,  ETC. 


GIVING  A  DESCRIPTIVE  ACCOUNT^OF  THE  DYESTUFFS,  THEIR  ORIGIN, 

WHERE   PRODUCED,   HOW    CULTIVATED,   AND    HOW   PREPARED 

FOR    USE,    THEIR    CHEMICAL    COMPOSITIONS,'  GENERAL 

ADAPTABILITY,  HOW  THEY  ARE  ADULTERATED,  ETC. 

IT   EMBRACES   RECIPES   FOR   COLORING   RAW   COTTON   TO   BE    MIXED 

WITH  WOOL,  FOR  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  ALL  KINDS  OF  FABRICS ; 

RECIPES   FOR   COLORING  WOOL,  WOOLEN  GOODS,  COTTON 

AND  WOOL  GOODS  IN  THE  PIECE,  COTTON  YARN 

(WITH    SAMPLES),    COTTON    THREAD, 

AND    WOOLEN    YARN; 

CONTAINING   SEVENTY  SAMPLES  OF  TTOOL,,  COTTON  YARN,  AND 

CLOTH;    SAMPLE   OF   BLACK   ON   RAW    COTTON, 

COLORED   AT   ONE    OPERATION; 

EMBRACING,  IN  ALL,  OYER  FOUR   HUNDRED  RECIPES. 


By  RICHARD   H.   GIBSON, 

Pkactical  Dver  and  Chemist. 


BOSTON: 

ALBERT    J.    WRIGHT,    PRINTER,    79    MILK    STREET 

(Corner  of  Federal). 

18*8. 


Entoifd  according  to  the  Act  of  Congress,  in  tlic  year  1878, 

By  RICHARD   H.   GIBSON, 

In  the  office  of  the  Librai-ian  of  Congress,  at  Washington,  D.  C. 


LMEODUCTION  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 


Ix  publishing  this  book,  I  have  no  doubt  but  there  will  be 
some  dyers  who  will  stigmatize  me  as  an  unprincipled  scoun- 
drel, for  giving  to  the  trade  at  large  what  they  call  the  secrets 
of  the  trade.  I  will  say  to  such,  that  the  time  has  gone  by 
when  every  one  who  was  engaged  in  the  art  of  dyeing,  thought 
it  was  his  iniperative  duty  to  keep  everything  connected  with 
his  trade  a  secret.  This  was  an  idea  that  universally  pre- 
vailed among  dyers.  "Within  a  few  years,  however,  those 
connected  with  the  pursuit  of  this  branch  of  industry  find  that 
it  is  for  their  interest  to  make  themselves  familiar  with  every 
one  engaged  in  the  same  pursuit,  and  to  freely  converse  and 
exchange  opinions  upon  those  subjects  in  which  they  are  most 
interested. 

This  familiarity  among  dyers  has  called  forth  other  means 
of  suppl}  ing  the  demand  for  information,  so  as  to  enable  those 
not  directly  located  in  manufacturing  centres  to  keep  pace 
with  the  improvements  and  new  methods  of  dyeing ;  and  to 
supply  this  demand  for  information,  books  and  papers  are 
printed,  which  are  freely  read  and  well  supported. 

But  among  the  many  volumes  of  books  on  dyeing  in  circu- 
lation, there  are  at  present  none  that  can  be  called  complete, 
as  they  merely  give  a  recipe  for  a  few  pounds  of  wool  or  cot- 
ton, instead  of  a  kettle-full,  or  the  usual  amount  of  wool 
colored  at  a  time  in  all  dye-houses,  so  that  a  person  performing 
the  operation,  if  not  well  acquainted  (or  a  skilful  dyer)  with 
the  quality  and  amount  of  the  coloring  matter  contained  in 
the  drugs  and  dyestuSs  they  have  to  use,  cannot  use  them 
economically,  and,  in  most  cases,  cannot  produce  the  color  or 
shade  desired. 


4:  IITTRODUCTION. 

In  this  work  I  have  endeavored  to  give  all  the  necessary 
information  as  to  the  coloring  principles,  their  derivation, 
their  adaptal)ility  and  proper  application,  and  it  is,  strictly 
speaking,  a  practical  work  upon  the  art  of  dyeing.  If  there 
are  any  dyers  who  wish  to  obtain  more  extended  information, 
or  fuller  explanations  upon  the  dyestuffs,  than  what  is  found  in 
this  book,  they  should  consult  such  works  as  those  of  Berze- 
lius,  Bancroft,  Berthollet,  Chevrueil,  Thomson,  Napier,  and 
others,  which  will  repay  them  well  for  the  time  expended  in 
perusing  them. 

The  reader,  in  perusing  this  book,  will  find  some  quotations 
from  the  above-named  eminent  chemists,  as  well  as  from  my 
father's  works.  ^ 

To  these  eminent  men  dyers  are  greatly  indebted  ;  they 
have  given  us  a  correct  explanation  of  the  chemical  changes 
that  take  place  in  the  different  processes  of  dyeing  ;  their  skil- 
ful and  laborous  investigations  have  been  very  beneficial  to 
dyers,  in  pointing  out  to  them  the  necessity  of  a  chemical 
knowledge  of  the  first  principles  of  the  art  of  making  artificial 
color,  or  dyeing;  for,  if  there  is  one  art  more  than  another 
that  requires  such  a  knowledge,  it  is  the  art  of  dyeing,  for  it 
is  of  the  utmost  importance  for  a  dyer  to  understand  chemis- 
try, at  least  that  part  of  it  that  is  connected  with  his  trade  ; 
for  without  this  chemical  knowledge,  dyeing  cannot  be  either 
profitably  or  economically  followed,  as  it  depends  entirely 
upon  chemistry  for  its  full  deveio[)inent  and  successful  prac- 
tice. 

I  have  not  written  this  book  with  the  expectation  that  every 
one  who  will  purchase  it,  and  who  understands  the  manual  of 
operations  in  a  dye-house,  can  be  made  a  skilful  dyer  by  the 
perusal  of  it,  and  every  intelligent  dyer  will  exonerate  me 
from  harboring  such  an  idea. 

RICHARD  H.  GIBSON. 


PEEFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 


In  offering  this  my  second  work  on  the  art  of  dyeing  to  my 
brother  dyers  and  others,  it  becomes  necessary  that  I  make  a 
few  preliminary  observations.  In  the  first  phice,  this  work 
is,  in  one  sense  of  the  word,  a  revision  and  enlargement  of 
my  former  work.  As  the  anthor,  I  claim  to  have  no  more 
scientific  knowledge  than  just  the  "quantum  siifficil"  for  the 
successful  practice  of  the  su])ject  upon  which  I  write,  and 
which  has  engaged  my  strict  attention  and  earnest  study  for 
over  twenty  years  ;  and  the  trade  of  a  dyer  has  been  followed, 
under  similar  circumstances,  by  my  family,  in  direct  succession, 
for  nearly  two  centuries.  Therefore  I  am  a  dyer  simply 
by  necessity,  as  it  were,  and  having  received  but  a  common 
English  education,  and  acquired  enough  chemical  knowledge 
to  qualify  me  for  the  situation  in  life  which  I  have  thus  far 
filled,  nothing  more,  therefore,  must  or  should  be  expected 
from  my  pen,  by  men  of  science,  than  merely  to  call  their  atten- 
tion to  the  investigation  of  an  art  that  will  repay  their  trouble 
by  the  pleasure  they  will  derive  from  observing  these  beauti- 
ful and  delicate  chemical  changes  which  take  place  in  the 
diflferent  operations  of  dyeing,  or  the  producing  of  artificial 
colors. 

To  men  of  science,  no  new  and  brilliant  discoveries  are 
announced,  to  create  astonishment;  neither,  in  these  pages,  is 
there  any  strange  theory  brought  up,  to  call  out  the  mind  in 
subtle  controversy  ;  no,  very  little  indeed  is  off*ered  the  reader, 
more  than  the  plain  description  of  a  business  that  has  engaged 
the  attention  and  experience  of  the  writer. 

For  the  above  reason,  therefore,  this  work  should  not  be 
criticised  as  emanating  from  the  brain  of  a  learned  philoso- 


G  PREFACE. 

pher,  but  should  be  viewed  as  the  labor  of  an  uneducated 
dyer,  and  intended  for  the  perusal  and  inspection  of  men  of 
the  same  pursuits  and  acquirements  as  himself. 

All  the  recipes,  processes,  &c.,  described  and  em])odied  in 
this  work,  are  such  as  the  writer  can  with  confidence  recom- 
mend, having  practised  successfully  with  them  ;  and  should 
recipes  be  given  not  my  own,  or  those  which  I  have  not 
worked  by,  they  will  be  credited  to  those  persons  from  whom 
I  received  them. 

In  the  description  of  the  various  coloring  materials,  if  de- 
rived from  the  animal,  vegetable,  or  mineral  kingdom,  the 
attention  of  the  author  has  been  directed  to  their  natural 
history,  the  place  of  their  growth  or  production,  the  methods 
employed  in  collecting  and  preparing  them  for  the  market 
and  use  of  the  dj'er,  their  commercial  history,  the  state  in 
which  they  reach  us,  their  properties,  their  chemical  compo- 
sition and  relations,  the  changes  which  they  undergo  by  time 
and  exposure,  their  accidental  or  fraudulent  adulterations, 
their  coloring  properties  and  applications,  their  ecpnomical 
use,  &c.,  &c. 

The  colorins:  substances  or  materials  which  are  obtained 
from  the  mineral  and  animal  kingdoms,  and  those  furnished 
by  ihe  chemical  manufacturer,  are  of  a  nature  to  admit  of  no 
general  precepts  as  to  their  proper  condition,  w^hich  would  not 
be  suggested  by  the  common  sense  of  the  dyer  and  purchaser. 
He  must  receive  them  as  offered,  and  judge  of  their  fitness 
for  his  purposes  by  his  knowledge  of  the  peculiar  properties 
of  each. 

The  author  may  perhaps  be  permitted  to  observe,  in  rela- 
tion to  himself,  that  he  has  expended  much  time  and  labor  in 
the  revising  of  this  w^jrk,  and  has  sought  diligently  for  facts 
from  almost  every  readily  accessible  source.  He  has  endeav- 
ored, by  a  comparison  of  different  authorities,  to  ascertain 
the  correct  theory  or  facts,  whenever  it  was  practicable.  He 
is  conscious,  nevertheless,  that,  in  the  multiplicity  of  details, 
very  many  errors  and  deficiencies   may  exist,  and  that  the 


PREFACE.  7 

fiuilts  of  niulue  brevity  in  some  eases  and  ffreat  leiif^th  in 
others  may  not  have  been  entirely  avoided ;  but  he  ventures 
to  hope  that  the  skilful  and  candid  dyer  will  make  all  due 
allowances. 

A  full  and  carefully  prepared  index  is  added,  also  a  glos- 
sary of  technical  terms  and  chemical  nomenclature,  too'ether 
with  the  chemical. formulas  of  the  different  salts,  acids,  &c., 
mentioned  in  the  work. 

The  author  acknowledges  his  great  obligations  and  indebt- 
edness to  Professor  John  Peirce,  William  Hunter  and  others 
for  the  valuable  assistance  and  information  rendered  him  in 
regard  to  the  subject  of  calico-printing ;  he  is  also  greatly 
indebted  to  Dr.  T.  P.  Shepard,  who  has  kindly  consented  to 
allow  the  insertion  in  this  work  of  his  "Recipes  for  Calico- 
Printing." 

The  student  and  dyer,  in  perusing  this  work,  ought  to  read 
it  in  a  regular  course.  By  so  doing  he  will  be  enabled  to 
understand  the  manner  in  which  the  recipes  are  to  be  manipu- 
lated. He  should  peruse  more  particularly'  the  remarks  upon 
the  recijjes  for  the  different  kinds  of  goods  or  fabrics  for  the 
coloring  of  which  they  are  written. 

Citations  of  different  authors  have  been  but  partially  made 
in  this  work.  The  writer,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  his  sources 
of  information,  and  for  the  convenience  of  those  who  wish  to 
pursue  the  different  subjects  further,  refers  them  to  such 
works  as  Bancroft's  Philosophy  of  Permanent  Colors,  Edin- 
burgh Encyclopedia,  Berzelius,  Chevruoil,  Pcrsaz,  Lectures 
of  Dr.  Grace  Calvert,  Chemical  News  for  1872,  O'Neil's  Dic- 
tionary of  Dyeing  and  Printing,  Muspratt's  Chemistry  Applied 
to  the  Arts,  Napier's  Chemistry  Applied  to  Dyeing,  Ure-'s 
Dictionary  of  Manufactures,  edition  of  18G0. 

KICHARD  H.  GIBSON. 

44  KiLBV  St.,  Boston. 


Part  First. 


DYEING   AND   MORDANTS. 


10  THE    AMEKICAN   DYEll. 


DYELNG  AND  MORDANTS. 


The  object  of  the  dyer  is  to  impart  to  wool,  silk,  cotton, 
and  llax,  either  in  their  loose  or  raw  state,  or  in  their  woven 
tissue,  some  color  or  other,  and  dyeing  is  the  art  of  impreg- 
natinsr  these  substances  with  colorinoj  substances  which  are 
more  or  less    permanent.     The    colors  .themselves    are    not 
material ;  they  are  merely  the  impression  of  light  npon  the 
eye,  and  the  result  of  the  abstraction  of  the  hues  from  the 
solar  beams,  by  the  affinity  which  the  coloring  matter  has  for 
those  hues ;  and  the  coloring  matter  coming  in  contact  with 
metallic  oxides,  the  different  hues  or  colors  are  fully  devel- 
oped and  shown  to  the  human  eye,  as  they  are  from  a  prism  ; 
and  all  the  colors,  whether  they  are  artificial  or  natural,  or 
on  whatever  seen,   have  once  been    beams   of  light  in  the 
heavens ;  therefore,  dyeing  is  the  fixing  of  substances  npon 
fabrics,  which  will  act  upon  light  in  a  difi'erent  manner  from 
the  substances  themselves.     As  every  chemical  change  affects 
the  character  of  the  substance  in  its  relation  to  light,  the 
dyer's  object  is  to  cause  a  combination  with  the  wool  or  other 
textile  fabrics,  that  will  produce  certain  effects  upon  light,  and 
thereby  produce  different  colors  or  shades  ;  and  as  a  color 
consists  of  parts  or  substances  only,  and  combining  these 
substances  or  materials  in  the  best  manner  and  fastening  it 
permanently  upon  different  fabrics,  and  with  a  knowledge  of 
the  chemical  laws  on  which  these  effects  are  based  or  founded, 
is  what  constitutes  the  skill  of  the  dyer.     Dyeing  is  dis- 
tinguished from  painting  by  the  fact  that  the  colors  (or  pig- 
ments)  are  fixed  to  the  animal  and  vegetable  textile  fibres 
according  to  certain  physico-chemical  principles  ;  but  it  is  not 
so  in  painting,  as  painting  is  simply  fixed  by  adhesion  to  the 


THE   AMERICAN   DYEE.  H 

surface,  although  paiuters  and  dyers  occasionally  use  the  same 
pigments.  So  is  printing  of  fabrics  distinguished  from  dye- 
ing, as  it  consists  of  duplicating  of  colored  patterns,  yet  it  is 
a  very  important  part  of  dyeing.  Dyeing,  strictly  speaking, 
means  the  coloring  of  absorbent  substances  by  imprcirnatino- 
them  with  solutions  of  coloring  matters.  It  is  thus  opposed 
to  painting,  which  consists  in  laying  a  color  upon  the  surface 
to  be  colored. 

As  animal  charcoal  and  arable  soil  are  possessed  of  the 
property  to  assimilate  in  their  pores  coloring  matter  and  some 
inorganic  substances  without  the  latter  being  altered,  so  also 
do  animal  and  vegetable  fibres  possess  the  property  of  a1)sor]j- 
ing.from  solutions  and  fixing  in  a  more  or  less  insoluble  con- 
dition dyes  and  some  of  the  confitituents  of  mordants.  This 
combination  or  union  is  often  so  loose  that  it  is  easily  broken 
up  by  repeated  washing  in  water,  especially  if  washed  in  hot 
water.  For  instance,  if  a  textile  fibre  is  dyed  (or  rather 
tinged,  for  dyeing  implies  fixity)  with  sulphate  of  indigo,  or 
with  Berlin  blue  in  solution  with  oxalic  acid,  the  color  imparted 
to  the  fibre  will  entirely  disappear  by  repeated  washing  in 
water. 

A  fibre  can  only  be  dyed  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term 
when  the  dissolved  coloring  matter  has  been  united  in  insolu- 
ble condition  with  the  fibre,  and  for  this  purpose  the  inter- 
vention of  a  third  substance  is  required;  viz.,  a  mordant. 
The  union  thus  formed  will  resist  the  action  of  solvents ;  that 
is,  it  will  resist  repeated  washings  in  warm  water  and  soap, 
and  the  color  thus  produced  is  termed  fast,  and  will  resist  the 
action  of  light,  air,  and  weak  alkaline  solutions,  also  weak 
acids.  A  color  which  does  not  resist  these  agents  is  termed 
fugitive.  Dyeing  is  based  upon  chemical  principles,  but  as 
regards  the  fixing  of  the  dye  by  the  fibre,  it  would  appear  to 
be  only  a  physical  attraction,  as  there  does  not  exist  between 
a  certain,  quantity  of  fibre  and  of  dye  an  atomistic  relation. 
Moreover,  neither  fibre  nor  dye  have  lost,  after  fixation  has 
taken  phice,   their  characteristic  properties.     The   insoluble 


12  THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 

condition  of  the  union  between  the  fibre  and  the  dye  may  be 
obtained  in  various  ways;  viz.,  by  removal  of  the  solvent, 
as,  for  instance,  oxide  of  copper  dissolved  in  ammonia  may 
be  fixed  by  simply  evaporating  the  ammonia.  Chromate  of 
zinc  dissolved  in  annuonia  can  be  fixed  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  oxide  of  copper.  The  precipitation  of  carthamiue 
(CiiHjyOn)  from  its  alkaline  solution  by  the  aid  of  an 
acid,  and  the  precipitation  of  some  of  the  tar  colors  from 
their  alcoholic  solutions,  belong  to  the  same  category.  The 
insoluble  condition  can  be  produced  by  oxidation  (in  calico- 
printing  and  cotton  dyeing,  called  the  ageing  process)  the 
previously  soluljle  color  being  rendered  insoluble  by  taking 
up  oxygen. 

If  we  should  attempt  to  trace  the  origin  and  progress  of  the 
art  of  dyeing  from  its  first  beginnings,  whether  those  begin- 
nings were  in  the  most  remote  antiquity,  or  in  those  stages  of 
its  reappearance  in  more  recent  ages,  after  this  art,  as  well  as 
most  other  useful  ones,  had  experienced  a  partial,  if  not 
entire  destruction  by  those  civil  and  political  convulsions 
which  have  frequently  swept  away  all  traces  of  civilization 
from  our  globe,  save  the  ruins  of  some  stately  edifices,  which, 
from  their  very  magnitude,  bade  defiance  to  the  power  of  the 
destroying  generation  to  remove  ; — we  say,  should  we  attempt 
to  trace  its  rise  either  from  the  ruins  of  overthrown  arts,  or 
endeavor  to  show  what  was  its  beginnings  and  greatest  state 
of  perfection  in  the  earlier  stages  of  the  world,  we  should  have 
a  task  of  no  common  magnitude  before  us,  fur  we  should  have 
to  penetrate  through  the  gloom  and  obscurity  of  past  ages  ; 
we  should  have  to  plunge  for  our  subject  into  that  dark  epoch 
of  time  when  dyeing,  as  well  as  other  useful  arts,  began,  and 
long  before  the  age  in  which  they  originated  was  suflEiciently 
enlightened  to  produce  an  historian,  or  the  times  had  afforded 
sufficient  materials  fur  history.  Therefore,  we  will  nut  attempt 
to  give  the  exact  data  when  it  was  first  practised  as  an  art ; 
but  historians  speak  of  it  as  being  practised  in  very  early 
times  in  the  East,  and  that  it  was  as  common  to  the  most 


THE    AMERICAX    DYEE.  13 

primitive  life  as  to  the  most  advanced  stages  of  civilization. 
Colored  garments  are  mentioned  in  the  earliest  records.  (See 
37th  chapter  of  Genesis,  23d  verse.)  The  Orientals  for 
ages  have  practised  the  art  of  dj-eing.  Notwithstanding  the 
length  of  time  the  art  has  been  practised,  the  most  wonderful 
improvements  have  been  made  in  the  art  within  the  last  twenty 
years,  and  these  improvements  have  not  been  the  result  of 
accident  or  chance,  but  are"  the  work  of  chemists,  and  by  those 
very  chemists  who  are  engaged  in  the  solution  of  the  highest 
as  well  as  most  abstruse  problems.  These  illustrious  chemists 
have  distinguished  themselves  in  the  discovery  of  new  dyeing 
substances  or  principles,  which  are  rapidly  taking  the  place  of 
the  old  materials.  There  is  no  doubt  in  my  mind  that,  in 
the  earlier  ages',  the  art  of  dyeing  was  brought  to  a  greater 
degree  of  perfection  than  it  is  at  the  present  time';  and,  for 
these  reasons,  that  they  were  capable  of  carr3'ing  it  to  a  much 
greater  degree  of  perfection  than  we  are,  will  be  obvious  to 
every  reflecting  mind.  Their  extreme  longevity  afforded  to 
every  individual  engaged  in  it  sufficient  time  to  bring  to  ma- 
turity any  intricate  invention  which  requires  so  much  stud}' 
and  time  to  perfect  its  parts  as  to  make  it  the  work  of  succes- 
sive generations  of  our  short-lived  race  to  complete.  For 
instance,  such  an  invention  as  the  steam-engine,  which  occu- 
pied two  or  three  hundred  years  in  progressing  to  its  present 
state  of  perfection,  would  not  have  required  the  attention  of 
one  of  these  men  a  fourth  part  of  their  lifetime,  and  some 
antediluvian  Watt  would  have  completed  this  ultimatum  of 
human  skill  long  before  his  faculties  had  acquired  their  full 
streno^th  ;  and  an  ancient  Dumas  or  BerthoUet  mi<2:ht  have 
done  the  same  in  perfecting  the  art  of  dyeing. 

If  the  numerous  coloring  substances  that  we  use  in  'dyeing 
had  an  affinity  for  the  wool  or  cotton  in  its  natural  state,  dye- 
ing would  be  a  very  simple  process,  and  every  one  could  be  a 
dyer,  for  all  that  would  be  required  would  be  to  make  a  solu- 
tion of  the  dyestuflT,  and  dip  the  wool  or  cloth  in  it,  and  it  is 
colored  ;  but  this  we  find  is  not  the  case.    With  the  exce[)tiou 


14:  THE    AMERICAN    DYEE. 

of  indigo,  there  is  scarcely  a  tlyestuff  that  Avill  impart  its  own 
color  to  goods,  that  deserves  the  name  of  color.  When  the 
dyer  asceitains  that  there  is  no  affinity  between  the  fibre  he 
has  to  color,  and  the  coloring  substance  he  has  to  use  to  pro- 
duce the  desired  color,  he  endeavors  to  find  a  third  substance 
that  will  have  a  mutual  attraction  for  both  the  fibre  and  color- 
ing matter,  so  that  by  combining  this  third  substance  with  the 
fibre,  and  passing  it  through  the  dyeing  solution,  the  color 
combines  with  the  substance  which  is  upon  the  goods,  and 
then  constitutes  the  dye.  This  third  substance  used  is  called 
a  mordant.  The  variety  of  mordants  is  almost  infinite ; 
they  being  as  numerous  as  it  is  possible,  for  all  the  acids  to 
form  difierent  combinations,  in  variable  proportions,  with  all 
the  alkalies,  earths,  and  metals.  "  They  are  either  neutral, 
sub,  or  super  salts;  that  is,  the  acid  and  the  base  or  radical, 
.  are  either  in  proportion  to  mutually  saturate  each  other,  and 
form  a  neutral  compound,  or  the  base  is  not  fully  saturated 
with  the  acid,  in  which  case  it  is  a  sub-salt;  or  the  acid  pre- 
vails over  the  base,  when  it  is  said  to  be  super-saturated  with 
it;  it  is  then  a  super-salt.  They  are  distinguished  as  the 
alkaline,  earthy,  or  metallic  salts,  according  as  these  respec- 
tive substances  form  the  base  or  radical  of  the  salt."  "Two 
or  more  of  them  are  capable  of  uniting  together,  and  also  two 
bases  can  unite  to  one  acid,  or  two  acids  to  one  base,  forming 
compound,  triple,  &c.,  salts."  All  the  mordants,  -with  but 
one  or  two  exceptions,  are  found  among  the  metallic  oxides. 
It  might  be  supposed  from  this,  that  as  metals  are  the  most 
numerous  class  of  elements,  mordants  should  also  be  as 
numerous ;  but  this  is  not  so.  In  order  that  this  third  sub- 
stance spoken  of  may  act  as  a  mordant,  it  is  required  to  have 
certain  properties  ;  it  must  have  an  attraction  for  the  coloring 
matter,  so  as  to  form  with  it  an  insoluble  colored  compound, 
and  it  must  be  held  very  easily  in  solution.  It  should  also 
have  an  affinity  for  the  fibre,  a  tendency  to  unite  with  it ;  but 
this  property  is  not  always  essentially  necessary,  only  the  first 
two  are  so,  and  they  limit  the  mordants  almost  wholly  to  what 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  15 

are  termed  the  insoluble  bases;  that  is,  substances  which 
are  not  of  themselves  soluble  in  water.  The  principal  and 
most  essential  part  of  coloring  is  a  right  choice  and  proper 
application  of  the  various  mordants  :  there  being  a  chemical 
union  I)et\veen  the  mordant  and  coloring  matter,  a  new  sub- 
stance is  formed,  differing  not  only  in  properties  but  in  color 
from  any  of  the  originals ;  therefore,  a  very  little  alteration 
in  the  strength  or  quality  of  the  mordant  gives  an  alteration 
in  the  shade  of  the  color. 

Thus,  by  carefulfy  studying  the  conditions  of  the  mordants, 
and  the  relation  they  have  to  the  coloring  matter,  the  reactions 
which  will  take  place  under  the  varied  circumstances  of  their 
application,  and  what  kind  of  reaction  will  be  required  to 
obtain  the  results  we  want,  the  dyer  will  then  find  his  trade 
not  only  easy  but  pleasant  and  most  interesting.  He  will  also 
find,  that  if  the  mind  guides  the  hand,  labor  will  not  then  be 
felt  as  a  curse  or  a  degradation.  This  right  choice  of  the 
mordants  to  be  used,  and  the  alterations  that  the  dyer  can 
make  in  them,  gives  him  a  much  wider  field  for  a  variety  of 
shades,  and,  at  the  same  time,  a  less  number  of  colorinf^  sub- 
stances  are  required;  as,  for  instance,  we  know  that  logwood 
alone  gives  no  color  to  cotton  which  is  worthy  of  the  name  of 
color,  yet,  by  a  judicious  application  of  a  few  different  kinds 
of  mordants,  we  can  obtain  all  the  shades  from  a  French  white 
to  a  violet,  from  a  lavender  to  a  purple,  from  a  blue  to  a  lilac, 
and-  from  a  slate  to  a  black.  In  regard  to  mordants.  Dr. 
Bancroft,  in  his  work  on  the  Philosophy  of  Permanent  Colors, 
arranges  all  colors  in  two  classes  ;  viz.,  substantive  and  adjec- 
tive. By  the  former  is  understood  those  which,  without  the 
aid  of  a  mordant,  become  fixed  upon  the  textile  fibres  in  an 
insoluble  condition.  By  adjective  colors  is  understood  such 
as  require  an  intermediate  substance  (a  mordant,  in  fact),  to 
become  fixed  upon  the  fibre  in  an  insoluble  condition.  He 
says  :  "To  me,  coloring  matters  seem  to  fall  naturally  under 
two  general  classes.  The  first  including  those  matters  which, 
when  put  into  a  state  of  solution,  may  be  fixed  with  all  the 


16  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

permanency  of  which  the}'  are  susceptible,  and  made  full}'  to 
exhibit  their  colors  in  or  upon  the  dyed  substance  without  the 
interposition  of  any  earthy  or  metallic  basis.  The  colors  of 
the  first  class  I  shall  call  substantive,  as  denoting  a  thing  solid, 
by  or  depending  only  on  itself;  and  the  colors  of  the  second 
class  I  shall  call  adjegtive,  as  implying  that  their  lustre  and 
permanency  are  acquired  by  their  being  adjected  upon  a  suita- 
ble basis." 

"Eflrthy  and  metallic  substances,  when  thus  interposed, 
serve  not  only  as  a  bond  of  union  between  the  coloring  mat- 
ter and  the  dyed  substance,  but  they  also  modify  as  well  as 
fix  the  color;  some  of  them,  particularly  the  oxide  of  iron, 
and  the  earth  of  alum,  exalting  and  giving  lustre  to  most  of 
the  coloring  matters  with  which  they  are  united ;  whilst 
others,  and  especially  the  oxide  of  iron,  blacken  some,  and 
darken  almost  all  such  matters,  if  made  to  combine  with 
them." — Bancroft  on  Dyeing,  Vol.  1,  p.  118. 

Mordants  modify  the  original  color  that  a  dyeing  material 
yields  ;  for  instance,  wdth  alumina  mordants,  madder  will  yield 
pink,  red,  and  scarlet,  and  with  the  salts  of  iron,  according 
to  the  degree  of  concentration,  madder  yields  lilac,  purple, 
black,  and,  with  certain  salts  of  copper,  madder  will  yield  a 
brown. 

The  theory  of  the  action  of  mordants  is  connected  in  the 
closest  manner  with  that  of  dyeing.  It  may,  in  ffict,  be 
viewed  under  two  different  aspects.  Often  there  exists  a 
true  combination  between  the  material  to  be  colored,  and  the 
coloring  matter,  —  a  combination  which  is  only  determined 
by  a  veritable  affinity  between  the  coloring  matter  and  the 
material  colored,  and  which  presents  a  condition  that  is  anal- 
ogous to  that  which  occurs  in  all  chemical  combinations  ;  that 
is,  a  state  of  saturation,  beyond  which  the  union  of  these 
bodies  becomes  of  a  very  unstable  character.  At  other  times, 
on  the  contrary,  we  regard  the  coloring  of  wool,  silk,  and 
cotton,  as  produced  by  a  mechanical  phenomenon,  by  virtue 
of  which  the   colorin^:  matters  will  become  fixed  or  confined 


THE    A3IERICAN    DYER.  17 

iu  the  meshes  of  organic  tihiments  contained  in  the  material 
to  be  colored.  "It  approximates  the  theory  of  dyeing  to 
some  analogous  phenomena  which  we  find  manifested  by 
animal  charcoal  on  colored  solutions  ;  for  as  the  animal  char- 
coal seizes  upon  the  coloring  matters  contained  in  an  aqueous 
solution,  and  renders  them  insoluble  by  tixing  them  in  a 
purely  mechanical  manner  within  its  own  pores,  so  may  the 
wool,  the  silk,  and  the  cotton  appropriate  the  coloring  mat- 
ters held  in  solution,  and,  by  fixing  them  in  their  pores,  ren- 
der them  more  or  less  insoluble  to  water."  The  experience 
of  dyers  has  taught  them  that  dyeing  thus  produced  is  always 
lacking  both  in  permanency  and  intensity,  —  two  properties 
which  we  obtain  if  we  previously  mordant  the  material  before 
attempting  to  color  it.  It  can  be  easily  seen  that  the  mor- 
dants can  be  fixed  in  the  tissues  of  the  material  by  similar 
causes  to  those  which  determine  the  fixation  of  the  coloriuij 
matters  by  animal  charcoal.  Mordants  that  are  insoluble  of 
themselves  have  to  be  dissolved  in  some  suitable  menstrua 
before  their  particles  can  combine  with  the  coloring  matter, 
or  even  enter  into  the  fibres  of  the  goods.  The  dyer  must 
attend  to  the  degree  of  aflinity  between  the  mordant  and  its 
solvent,  in  order  to  determine  what  force  the  solvent  will 
exert  against  the  mordant  combining  with  the  fibres  of  the 
cloth,  should  there  exist  an  affinity  between  them.  Otherwise 
a  powerful  mordant  can  be  weakened  by  the  attraction  of  it^ 
solvent :  fqr  instance,  common  alum,  at  its  greatest  concentra- 
tion, is  a  very  feeble  mordant  for  cotton,  owing  to  the  great 
attraction  between  the  alumina  and  sulphuric  acid.  Alum  is, 
however,  a  powerful  mordant  for  wool  or  woolen  fabrics,  and 
is  generally  used  along  with  tartar,  and  often  with  the  tin 
solutions.  The  mordants  employed  for  calico-printing  are 
chiefly  such  salts  as  are  comparatively  loose  combinations  of 
acid  and  base,  so  that  the  latter  can  easily  unite  with  the 
fibre;  and  among  the  mordants  chiefly  used,  the  acetate 
of  alumina  and  iron  occupy  the  first  place,  while  alum,  as  a 
solution  of  aluminate  of  soda,  is  now  more  rarely  used. 
3 


18  THE    AMEPilCAX    DYEK. 

The  mordant,  or,  more  properly  speaking,  the  solvent  of 
the  base  constituting  the  mordant,  should  not  be  capable  of 
injuring  or  destroying  immediately,  or  by  prolonged  actioA, 
either  the  coloring  matter  or  fabric.  Acids,  of  themselves, 
do  not  serve  as  mordants,  as  they  would  destroy  the  color- 
ins:  or  the  fabric;  but  in  cases  where  destructive  acids  have 
to  I)e  used,  they  must  be  immediately  washed  off  the  fabric 
in  order  to  neutralize  the  acid  before  it  has  time  to  act  upon 
the  color  or  tissue.  The  action  of  bases  upon  colors,  and 
the  composition  of  those  best  fitted  or  adapted  to  give  per- 
manency and  beauty,  are  a  very  important  part  of  dyeing, 
and  should  be  thoroughly  studied  and  understood  b}'  all  those 
who  intend  to  follow  the  art  of  dyeing  as  a  profession,  and 
expect  to  become  proficient  in  the  trade.  We  will  not  attempt 
to  discuss  whether  such  substances  as  nutgalls,  sumac,  tan- 
nin, or  catechu,  can  really  be  termed  mordants;  but  Ave  find 
that  these  substances,  in  cotton  dyeing,  are  very  essential  for 
fixing  within  the  fibre  of  the  cotton  such  quantities  of  the 
metallic  base  or  mordant  as  are  required  to  give  depth  and 
permanence  to  the  color ;  but  as  these  astringent  substances 
are  known  to  produce  tints  Avith  the  bases,  the}',  like  mor- 
dants, affords  us  a  wider  field  for  variety  of  color.  Sumac, 
nutgalls,  and  catechu,  or  cutch,  are  very  extensively  used 
in  cotton  dyeing  and  printing,  in  connection  with  the  metallic 
bases,  to  fix,  modify,  and  to  give  depth  of  colors,  for  which 
these  bases  are  applied.  The  mordants  generall}'  used  for 
silk  and  wool,  do  not  act  the  part  of  mordants  for  cotton. 

The  following  theor}'^  of  actions  of  mordants,  is  condensed 
from  the  "Pharmaceutical  Times,"  vol.  2,  p.  63,  which  says 
that  "cream  of  tartar,  or  bitartrate  of  potash,  constitutes,  of 
itself,  a  very  feeble  mordant,  but  which  is  very  often  used 
for  dyeing  w'ool  or  woolen  goods,  Avhen  the  dyer  wishes  to 
give  a  delicate  and  brilliant  shade.  It  is  usually  used  along 
with  alum,  the  tin  solutions,  and  sometimes  with  sulphate  of 
iron  (copperas).  Its  infiuence,  under  these  circumstances, 
consists  in  determining  a  double  decomposition,  from  which 


THE    AMEPJCAX    DYEK.  19 

is  produced  a  sulphate  of  potash  (KOSO3),  "i"  chloride  of 
potassium  (K  CI),  whilst  the  tartaric  acid  (QH.^O-i)  (.•omhines 
with  the  alumina  (Al.Oa),  the  peroxide  of  iron  (Fe^.O^),  or 
the  oxide  of  tin  (Sn  O.,).  Now  it  is  very  probable  that  the 
coloring  matters  remove  the  alumina,  the  oxide  of  tin,  or 
peroxide  of  iron,  more  readily  from  tartaric  acid  than  from 
sulphuric  acid  (SO3).  Moreover,  the  presence  of  free  sul- 
phuric acid  would  certainly  prove  injurious,  as  well  to  the 
wool,  as  to  the  coloring  matter,  whilst  free  tartaric  acid  can 
exercise  no  unfavorable  action  over  them. 

"The  subjecting  of  the  wool  to  an  alum  mordant,  is  al\va3'3 
done  at  a  boil ;  the  mixture  used  in  this  process,  is  a  com- 
pound of  alum  and  cream  of  tartar.  One  of  the  objects  of 
this  addition  is  to  free  the  bath  of  the  carbonate  of  lime 
(Ca  CO3),  which  most  all  waters  contain  in  solution,  and 
which,  acting  upon  the  alum,  would  partly  decompose  it,  by 
producing  an  insoluble  subsulphate  of  alumina  and  potash ; 
this,  accumulating  upon  the  wool,  and,  becoming  unevenly 
fixed  upon  the  surface,  would  leave  clouds  or  blotches  upon 
the  wool  when  it  was  taken  .out  of  the  cheing  bath  or  tub. 

"But  independent  of  this  effect,  which  might  be  produced 
by  an  acid,  cream  of  tartar  appears  to  be  capable  of  effect- 
ing a  farther  object,  by  inducing  a  double  decomposition, 
which  transforms  the  alum  into  a  tartrate  of  alumina. 

"Wool,  or  woolen  cloth,  when  dipped  in  a  cold  solution 
of  alum,  appropriates  a  part  of  the  alum  to  itself,  and  yet 
there  is  not  seen  any  alteration  in  the  wool ;  but  if  the  wool 
or  cloth  is  boiled  in  an  alum  solution,  it  }ields  to  this  liquid 
a  portion  of  its  organic  matter,  which  becomes  dissolved ; 
but,  at  the  same  time,  the  wool  absorbs  an  equal  amount  of 
the  alum. 

"  We  have  only  to  show  the  action  which  the  wool  under- 
goes, when  brought  in  contact  with  alum  and  cream  of  tartar, 
at  one  and  the  same  time.  It  is  very  possible  that  there  may 
be,  iu  this  case,  a  simultaneous  fixation  of  alum,  as  well  as 
of  the  double  tartrate  of  alumina  and  potash,  and  of  tartaric 


20  TiiE  a:mericax  dyer. 

acid.  The  presence  of  alum  in  the  wool  or  cloth,  when  taken 
out  of  the  boiliug  solution,  is  very  evident;  but  the  presence 
of  tartrate  of  alumina  and  potash,  and  of  free  tartaric  acid, 
is  only  presumable. 

"Silk,  in  the  like  manner,  unites  itself  with  alum  when 
placed  in  a  cold  solution  of  alum,  and  afterwards  parts  with 
it  to  boiling  water*;  it  may  be  reproduced  from  this  liquor  by 
evaporation.  The  action  of  silk  on  acetate  of  alumina 
(2AI..O.+3QH3O3)  is  identical  with  wool.  It,  at  first, 
absorbs  the  alum  in  its  pure  form,  then,  by  desiccation,  it 
loses  some  acetic  acid  (C4H3O3),  and  retains  a  mixture  of 
the  acetate,  together  with  alumina  in  its  free  state ;  it  gives 
up  a  farther  portion  of  this  acetate  to  boiling  water. 

"The  alum  mordant  is  always  used  cold  for  silk;  if  used 
hot,  it  would  destroy  the  lustre  of  the  silk ;  neither  should 
the  bath  contain  tartar  when  used  for  silk.  There  will, 
therefore,  be  no  difficulty  in  imagining  that  silk,  wool, 
and  cotton,  may,  in  their  character  as  porous  bodies,  purely 
and  simply  seize  upon  the  alum,  and  that  the  alum,  when 
once  impregnated  in  the  pores  of  the  silk,  wool,  or  cotton, 
may  afterwards  react  upon  the  coloring  matter  according  as 
the  alum,  in  its  turn,  penetrates  the  interior  of  the  silk,  wool, 
or  cotton. 

"It  is  certain  that  silk,  wool,  and  cotton,  possess,  in  a  high 
degree,  the  faculty  of  seizing  upon  the  insoluble  coloring 
matters  when  these  are  presented  to  them  in  their  nascent 
state.  AVe  find  that  cotton  is  dyed  a  rose  color  in  a  solution 
that  contains  carthamic  acid  in  suspension,  arising  from  the 
decomposition  of  carthamate  of  soda  by  an  acid.  In  the 
same  manner,  we  find  wool  will  acquire  a  dark  slate  color  by 
being  immersed  in  a  solution  of  copperas  and  tannin,  by 
attracting  to  itself  the  black  precipitate  which  results  from 
mixture  of  the  iron  salt  and  tannin.  Consequently,  although 
the  dyer  endeavors  to  produce  the  insolubLe  compound,  on< 
which  the  coloring  of  the  material  depends,  within  th§  very 
pores  of  the  tissue,  still  we  may  affirm  that,  in  many  cases. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  21 

the  cloth  or  other  material,  when  placed  in  presence  of  the 
nascent  precipitate,  has  the  property  of  seizing  upon  it,  and 
thus  acquiring  a  shade  of  greater  or  less  intensity. 

Dumas  says  :  "  This  property  is  due  to  some  undetermined 
and  yet  unknown  cause,  and  must  undoubtedly  be  referred  to 
the  reaction  that  takes  place  between  the  alum  and  the  soluble 
coloring  matters,  as  well  as  to  some  other  mysterious  phe- 
nomena which  take  place  in  dyeing.  If  not,  how  are  we  to 
account  for  the  wool  so  easily  and  readilj'  assuming  a  scarlet 
color,  while  in  silk  and  cotton  we  are  unable  to  fix  the  proper 
scarlet  color?  Or  how  can  we  understand  why  certain  colors 
should  become  more  permanently  fixed  on  certain  kinds  of 
materials  than  on  others,  unless  it  is  by  virtue  of  sonie  special 
action,  designated  by  the  name  of  affinity,  but  which  does 
not  the  less  constitute  a  force,  or  rather  a  consequence  of 
diverse  forces  of  which  we  must  take  full  account  daring  the 
difierent  manipulations  of  dyeing." 

To  confound,  in  fact,  a  chemical  affinity,  so  called,  such  as 
is  evidenced  in  ordinary  chemical  combinations,  when  pro- 
duced in  definite  proportions,  with  the  phenomena  of  dyeing, 
is  to  mix  together  two  very  distinct  ideas.  For  instance,  we 
find  the  union  of  wool  with  indigo,  and  silk  with  Prussian 
blue,  quite  a  difierent  operation  to  the  combination  of  lead 
with  sulphur.  But  if  we  should  consider  the  material  to  be 
colored  as  a  simple  filter  and  to  be  capable  of  retaining  in  its 
pores  certain  precipitates,  and  of  receiving  from  these  pre- 
cipitates a  certain  color  or  colors,  we  should  go  equally  as 
far  in  the  opposite  direction.  Neither  would  this  supposition 
explain  the  manner  in  which  a  colored  lac  is  formed  in  a 
greater  part  of  the  operations  of-  dyeing,  operations  which 
are  efiected  by  an  alum  or  an  aluminous  salt  and  a  coloring 
solution,  altogether  incapable  of  producing  any  lac,  except 
by  adding  an  alkali  for  the  purpose  of  setting  at  liberty  the^ 
alumina,  or  of  a  material  which  has  the  power  of  taking  up 
that  lac  as  soon  as  it  shall  be  formed. 

The  experiments  of  Chevrueil  show  us  that  the  material  and 


22  THE   AjNIERICAN   DYER. 

the  color,  when  they  are  once  united,  will  form  products  that 
are  possessed  of  properties  which  differ  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  material  even  in  the  same  given  color.  There- 
fore, the  properties  of  the  coloring  matter  are  modified  by 
the  peculiar  action  of  the  wool  or  fabric  on  the  dye.  There 
are  very  many  examples  that  place  this  assertion  beyon'd  all 
cavil.  It  is  very  necessary  that  the  mordants  should  have  a 
prime  equivalent  to  the  coloring  matter,  and  that  the  doctrine 
of  prime  equivalents  be  brought  into  practical  operation  in 
the  art  of  dyeing  ;  for  as  the  dyestuffs  and  mordants  do  natu- 
rally combine  in  determinate  and  definite  quantities  only,  we 
should,  in  forming  colors,  take  merely  that  just  proportion  or 
prime  equivalent  of  each  of  the  constituents  necessary  to  form 
that  definite  combination,  as  an  excess  of  either  of  them  is  a 
loss  in  the  materials  or  an  injury  to  the  fabric  or  color. 

What  these  combining  proportions  are  in  every  case  we 
have  yet  to  learn  by  a  series  of  well-conducted  experiments. 
A  table  or  tables  of  the  prime  equivalents  of  the  different 
chemical  salts  to  that  of  the  different  coloring  materials  would 
be  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  economy  and  successful 
operations  in  dyeing. 

It  is  onl}^  by  an  attentive  and  systematic  study  of  the 
specific  properties  of  the  mordants  and  coloring  matters  in 
their  relation  to  each  other  that  we  can  hope  to  direct  the 
future  progress  of  dyeing  to  its  ultimate  perfection  ;  for  it  is 
only  the  nicest  arrangement  of  chemical  laws  that  enables 
the  dyer  to  turn  to  his  advantage  the  different  coloring  mat- 
ters he  may  be  in  possession  of,  and  we  find  that  the  art  of 
dj^eing  is  wholly  dependent  upon  chemistry  for  its  full  devel- 
opment and  successful  practice ;  and  this  being  the  fact,  no 
person  should  attempt  the  practice  of  dyeing  without  first 
being  conversant  with  chemistry,  at  least  that  particular 
branch  of  chemistry  that  is  in  connection  with  or  is  applied 
to  the  art  of  dyeing  or  making  artificial  colors,  if  he  expects 
to  make  a  skilful  dyer  or  meet  with  successful  results  for 
himself  or  employer. 


THE    AM  ERIC  AX   DYER.  23 

"  Sometimes  there  are  circumstances  or  powers  occurring- 
in  the  operations  of  dyeing  which  interfere  with  or  direct 
chemical  affinity  in  the  particles  of  bodies,  so  that  one  l)ody 
often  induces  a  chemical  change  in  another  body  and  at  the 
same  time  will  not  undergo  any  change  itself. 

"This  power  or  affinity  is  termed  catalysis,  and  a  ^oo(\. 
instance  of  this  power  or  affinity  we  iind  in  fermentation. 
For  instance,  if  we  put  a  little  yeast  in  beer  to  induce  fer- 
mentation in  all  the  solution,  we  will  find  that  the  yeast 
remains  unaltered  ;  or  if  we  boil  starch  with  weak  or  diluted 
sulphuric  acid,  the  starch  will  be  first  changed  into  gum  and 
afterwards  int!D  sugar;  but,  notwithstanding  the  above-named 
changes,  we  find  the  sulphuric  acid  is  unaltered,  either  in 
quantity  or  propert3^ 

"  There  are  a  large  number  of  substances  which  possess 
this  property, of  catalytic  influence;  and,  if  so,  it  is  not  un- 
likely that  such  fibrous  materials  as  woolen,  silk,  and  cotton 
should  possess  it  towards  some  of  the  vegetable  colorino- 
substances  used  in  dyeing.  Many  of  the  operations  in  the 
dye-house  show  to  us  the  presence  of  some  such  power,  but 
the  nature  of  this  power  is  not  yet  fully  understood." 

The  force  of  affinity  is  largely  influenced  by  the  conditions 
in  which  the  bodies  we  wish  to  combine  are  placed.  Solid 
bodies  generally  have  no  chemical  action  one  upon  the  other ; 
for  which  reason  it  is  necessary  that  they  be  brought  into  the 
liquid  state  before  any  chemical  change  can  take  place.  This 
is  necessary  in  all  the  operations  of  dyeing,  not  only  to  cause 
combination,  but  to  allow  the  particles  to  penetrate  the  fibre 
of  the  material  we  wish  to  operate  upon,  and  while  there,  to 
be  operated  upon  by  the  affinity  of  another  body^  also  in 
solution,  brought  into  contact  with  them.  This  is  a  very 
essential  condition  of  all  dyestuflfs,  and  of  all  salts  we  wish 
to  use  in  dyeing,  either  as  mordants  or  dyes,  and  this  should 
never  be  lost  sight  of  when  studying  either  the  philosophy  or 
practical  operations  of  dyeing  ;  for  if  there  is  anything  that 
interferes  with  the  free  operation  of  these  conditions,  or  rather 


24  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

solubility,  it  will  hinder  or  put  back  the  process  or  else  injure 
the  dyeing  solution. 

"We  will  here  mention,  that  the  introduction  of  the  term 
catah/sis  was  only  considered  useful  as  bringing  into  one  class 
or  group  a  certain  class  of  phenomena  ;  but  the  same  might 
be  said  of  the  useful  term  affiniti/.  But  when  our  knowledge 
of  these  jjowers,  which  are  hidden,  is  more  advanced,  perhaps 
then  all  these  phenomena  can  be  accounted  for,  and  arranged 
under  the  operation  of  some  one  universal  power  or  law." 

In  the  first  part  of  this  article  we  alluded  to  the  antiquity 
of  the  art  of  dyeing';  yet  notwithstanding  its  antiquity,  there 
have  been  made  some  of  the  most  wonderful  improvements  in 
the  art  within  the  last  twenty  years,  by  which  the  old  proc- 
esses have  been  completely  revolutionized.  And  these 
improvements  are  due  to  the  patience  and  profound  investiga- 
tions of  chemists,  and  not  by  chance  or  accident,  but  by 
those  chemists  w^ho  are  enira^ed  in  solving  some  of  the  high- 
est  and  most  abstruse  problems. 

Among  these  illustrious  chemists  are  such  names  as  Hoff- 
mann, Nicholson,  Poirrier,  and  others,  and  although  none  of 
the  above-named  eminent  men  are  practical  dyers,  yet  by 
their  profound  and  scientific  investigations  dyeing  has  been 
elevated  to  its  proper  rank  as  an  art ;  and  to  them  and  other 
illustrious  and  scientific  men,  are  dyers,  and  even  the  world 
at  large,  indebted,  for  by  their  profound  and  laborious  inves- 
tigations of  the  different  processes  of  dyeing,  and  their  cor- 
rect elaborate  analysis  of  the  materials  used,  and  by  identify- 
ing and  connecting  its  principles  with  chemical  science  and 
knowledge,  they  have  brought  the  art  into  notice  as  con- 
nected closely  with  chemistry,  and  given  it  a  pre-eminence 
as  one  of  those  arts  which  are  dependent  upon  chemistry  and 
chemical  knowledge  for  its  economical  and  successful  prac- 
tice. They  have  given  us  useful  and  minute  descriptions  of 
the  materials  we  as  dyers  have  to  make  use  of.  They  have 
given  us  clear  and  correct  explanations  of  all  those  chemical 
changes  which  take  place  in  many  of  the  different  processes 


THE  a:mericax  dyer.  25 

of  dyeing,  and  have  given  us  satisfactory  accounts  of  some 
of  the  most  complicated  and  inexplicable  combinations  which 
often  occur  in  dyeing.  They  have  more  especially  dis- 
tinguished themselves  by  their  discoveries  of  new  dyeing  or 
coloring  materials  which  are  fast  taking  the  place  of  the  old 
materials. 


THE  NATURE  OF   COLORS. 

"  Strictly  speaking,  colors  have  no  existence,  but  are  the 
effects  of  light ;  or,  at  least,  colors  do  not  exist  in  the  objects 
that  appear  to  be  colored,  but  in  the  light  which  is  reflected 
from  the  apparently  colored  object. 

"  To  define  color  we  will  briefly  state  what  is  known  upon 
the  nature  and  composition  of  light. 

"A  beam  of  light  is  composed  of  three  distinct  colored 
rays  :  red,  blue,  and  yellow.  When  a  beam  strikes  the  sur- 
face of  a  body  it  bounds  off  as  an  elastic  ball  would  do  in 
striking  the  same  surface,  and  this  bounding  off  is  called 
reflection;  or  it  is  absorbed  by  the  body  and  disappears  and 
is  altogether  extinguished,  or  it  passes  through  the  body, 
making  it  transparent." 

"The  bounding  or  reflecting  rays  pass  into  the  eye,  and 
the  article  or  substance  from  which  it  is  reflected  appears 
white  or  some  particular  color.  No  light  can  proceed  from 
the  object  to  the  eye,  it  being  absorbed  and  extinguished,  the 
body  therefore  will  be  invisible ;  or,  if  the  surrounding 
objects  reflect  light  the  article  or  substance  appears  black, 
but  if  the  light  passes  through  unaltered  it  will  appear  clear. 
Thus  what  it  is  custom  to  call  white  lio:ht  is  the  simultaneous 
transmission  of  three  colored  rays."  "  For  instance,  if  you 
admit  light  into  a  daili  room  through  a  small  hole  in  a  win- 
dow-shutter, and  a  glass  prism  is  placed  in  the  hole,  and 
opposite  to  it,  on  the  wall  of  the  room,  place  a  piece  of  white 

4 


26  THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 

paper,  so  that  the  light  passing  through  the  hole  'will  strike 
upon  the  paper,  you  will  see  that  the  light  is  decomposed  and 
will  appear  upon  the  paper  in  the  following  order  : 


Violet, 

Green, 

Orange, 

Indigo, 

Yellow,* 
Blue.* 

Red,* 

"  These  are  called  the  seven  prismatic  colors  ;  those  that  are 
marked  thus  *  are  the  simple  or  primary  colors  ;  that  is,  they 
require  no  admixture  to  produce  them,  but  the  others  do  ; 
the  orange  is  a  mixture  of  red  and  yellow,  the  green  requires 
a  blue  and  yellow,  the  indigo  requires  the  admixture  of  the 
blue  and  red  ;  the  same  with  the  violet.  The  prism  through 
■which  the  light  passed  into  the  room,  from  its  shape,  effects 
a  complete  disturbance  of  the  light,  which  causes  the  ditier- 
ent  colors  to  be  seen  on  the  paper.  Similar  disturbances  and 
ejffects  are  produced  when  light  is  reflected  from  a  surface. 
The  different  combinations  of  the  red,  yellow,  and  blue 
which  produce  the  various  shades  of  color,  are  produced 
according  to  the  rate  of  the  disturbing  influence  upon  the 
different  rays  of  light.  And  as  every  chemical  change  affects 
the  character  of  the  substance  in  its  relation  to  light,  the 
dyer's  object  is  to  cause  a  combination  with  the  wool,  silk, 
cotton,  and  other  textile  fabrics  that  will  produce  certain 
effects  upon  light,  and  thereby  produce  different  colors  or 
shades.  The  following  very  simple  experiment  will  illustrate 
how  great  is  the  production  of  colors  dependent  upon  their 
relation  to  the  substance  of  light. 

"Take  a  solution  of  iodide  of  potassium  (KI),  which  is 
colorless  and  transparent,  and  divide  it  into  three  equal  parts  ; 
into  one  proportion  pour  a  little  sugar  of  lead  (Pb  O, 
C4H3O3),  into  the  other  a  persalt  of  mercury  (Hg  CI2  =  cor- 
rosive sublimate),  and  into  the  third  a*  little  starch,  with  a 
few  drops  of  nitric  acid  (NO^).  These  are  all  colorless  sub- 
stances (when  in  solution  by  themselves),  but  after  mixing 


THE   AMERICAI^^   DYER.  27 

them  we  will  have  in  the  first  a  deep  and  beautiful  yellow 
color:  in  the  s<?cond,  a  red  ;  and  in  the  third,  a  blue." 

Thus  we  see  that  the  three  primary  colors  can  be  produced 
with  the  same  substance  when  it  is  combined  with  other  sub- 
stances, which  were,  previous  to  the  combination,  colorless. 
And  although  this  experiment,  and  the  remarks  made  preced- 
ing it,  go  to  prove  that  color  has  no  material  existence  in 
the  substance  which  appears  to  be  colored,  the  question  is 
still  one  of  chemical  action. 

A  chemical  compound  alone  can  be  produced  that  will  vie 
with  nature  in  the  brilliancy  and  beauty  of  its  shade  ;  yet,  if 
that  is  produced  within  the  fibre  of  the  wool,  silk,  or  cotton, 
the  light  will  have  to  be  transmitted  through  the  wool,  silk, 
or  cotton,  as  a  medium,  and  the  fibre  of  these  sul>stances  not 
being  transparent,  w-e  find  that  the  original  beauty  of  the  color 
will  be  greatly  diminished.  For  which  reason  the  same  color, 
if  fixed  within  the  fibre  of  those  three  materials,  will  have  a 
different  appearance  in  each  of  them.  These  circumstances, 
when  viewed  in  all  their  relative  positions,  will  afl"ord  the  dyer 
subjects  for  constant  study  and  experiments.  We  cannot 
follow  nature  in  its  production  of  colors;  for  should  the  d3'er 
try  to  produce  a  icJiite  by  mixing  the  red,  yellow,  and  blue 
in  exact  proportions,  he  would  obtain  a  black  instead  of  a 
white.  But  the  producing  of  white  by  the  combining  of  the 
three  primary  colors,  is  an  every-day  occurrence  with  the 
practical  bleacher.  No  matter  what  the  process  for  bleach- 
ing the  goods  has  been,  they  will  come  out  of  the  bleach 
having  alwiiys  a  brownish-yellow  tinge  to  them ;  and  if  the 
goods  are  cotton,  a  little  indigo  blue  is  added,  and  the  result 
is  a  purer  white.  If  the  goods  are  silk,  they  will  have  a 
much  more  yellow  tinge  than  there  is  on  cotton,  and  to  get 
rid  of  this  yellow  tinge  on  silk,  the  bleacher  adds  a  little 
Prussian  blue  and  cochineal,  or  what  is  most  commonly  used 
is  archil,  which  gives  a  violet  color.  The  amount  of  these 
materials  used  will  vary  according  to  the  depth  of  yellow  on 
the  silk,  the  result  being  a  very  beautiful  white. 


28  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

By  the  preceding  observations  we  come  to  the  conclusion 
that  color  is  the  result  of  the  abstraction  of  the  celestial  hues 
from  the  solar  beams  by  the  aflBnity  of  the  coloring  matter  for 
it,  and  the  coloring  matter  coming  in  contact  with  metallic 
oxides,  the  different  hues  or  colors  are  fully  developed  and 
shown  to  the  human  eye  as  they. are  from'a  prism ;  and  all 
the  colors,  whether  they  are  natural  or  artificial,  or  on  what- 
ever seen,  have  once  been  beams  of  light  in  the  heavens,  and 
the  impregnation  of  the  coloring  matter  with  a  ray  of  light, 
and  then  being  by  it  transferred  to  an  oxide,  which  then 
reflects  upon  the  eye,  constitutes  the  whole  philosophy  of 
colors  ;  and  the  dyer,  when  engaged  in  his  profession,  is  per- 
forming the  operation  of  transfusing  celestial  hues  through 
terrestrial  substances.  He  is  imbuing  material  substance  with 
the  immateriality  of  light. 

"  Color  consists  of  parts  and  substances  only,  and  combining 
these  substances  or  materials  in  the  best  mauuer,  and  then 
fastening  them  permanentlj'  upon  the  different  fabrics,  and 
with  a  knowledge  of  the  chemicals  on  Avhich  these  effects  are 
based  or  founded,  is  what  constitutes  the  skill  of  the  dyer." 


THE  PROPERTIES  OF  COLORS,  AND  THEIR  RELA- 
TION TO  THE  ART  OF  DYEING. 

From  Gibson's  System  axd  Sciexce  of  Colors. 

"The  cause  of  dyestuffs  giving  a  color  with  metallic  or 
earthy  salts,  is  owing  to  a  peculiar  principle  which  they  con- 
tain ;  that  is,  a  crystallized  body,  when  pure,  having  a  greater 
affinity  for  metals  and  earths  than  it  has  for  any  other  sub- 
stance, precipitating  them  when  held  iu  solution  by  either 
acids  or  alkalies,  and  producing  compounds  or  lakes  of  but 
slight  solubility,  which  have  a  natural  tendency  to  enter  into 


THE    AMERICi^S^   DYER.  29 

combination  with  animal  fibre,  the  force  of  whose  combined 
attractions,  water  or  other  common  agents  are  not  capable  of 
separating. 

"To  this  precipitate  we  give  the  name  of  color;  and  the 
knowledge  of  making  it,  with  the  subsequent  process  of  com- 
bining it  with  wool  or  manufactured  fabrics,  we  designate  as 
the  art  of  dyeing  or  coloring. 

^  A  color,  therefore,  is  a  chemical  compound  or  colored  salt ; 
and  coloring,  or  dyeing,  is  a  chemical  art. 

"On  mixing  two  clear  solutions,  one  of  coloring  matter, 
and  the.  other  of  a  metallic  or  earthy  salt,  the  substances  that 
are  held  in  solution  pass  immediately  from  the  liquid  to  the 
solid  state.  In  some  cases  this  change  is  sudden  and  instan- 
taneous, and  the  sqlid  result  falls  rapidly  to  the  bottom  of  the 
vessel  as  an  insoluble  powder.  In  other  cases  the  mixed 
liquors  gradually  assume  opaqueness ;  and*  soon  a  separation 
takes  place,  and  a  broken,  curd-like  matter  slowly  subsides  to 
the  bottom,  and  lies  in  a  loose,  flocky  state,  which  the  least 
agitation  causes  to  rise  into  the  supernatant  liquor.  It  is 
slightly  soluble.  This  passage  from  liquidity  to  solidity  is  the 
first  eiFect  perceived  on  the  formation  of  color. 

"The  first  of  these  transitions  being  perfectly  insolul)le,  the 
aggregate  possesses  not  the  slightest  tendency  to  unite  with 
animal  or  vegetable  fibre.  Consequently,  an  insoluble  color 
can  never  be  chemically  combined  with  any  animal  or  vegeta- 
ble matter  at  a  single  operation  in  dyeing,  or  applied  as  a 
topical  color  in  calico-printing ;  and  if  it  were  attempted,  the 
result  would  be  a  mere  mechanical  adhesion  of  the  particles  of 
color  to  the  article  to  be  colored,  which  mere  washing  in  water 
would  remove.  This  shows  that  dyeing  is  not  a  mechanical 
fixation  of  color,  but  a  chemical  combination  of  it  with  the 
substance  to  be  colored. 

"But  as  the  component  parts  of  this  insoluble  color  have 
each,  when  separate,  a  strong  inclination  to  combine  with 
animal  and  vegetable  tissues,  and  also  with  each  other,  the 
process  of  dyeing  is  effected  by  first  impregnating  the  fabric 


30  THE    AMEEICAX   DYER. 

with  the  oxide  of  the  salt  used,  and  then  passing  it  through  a 
sohition  of  the  coloring  matter. 

"The  perfectly  insoluble  colors  are  mostly  mineral,  and 
their  specific  g'ravities  are  much  greater  than  those  that  are 
partially  soluble,  or  whose  color  is  obtained  from  the  vegeta- 
ble dyestufts.  The  character  of  insolubility  gives  to  a  color 
the  power  of  resisting  decomposition  by  light,  and  the  action 
of  the  atmosphere.  The  mineral  colors  possess  this  quality 
in  a  more  eminent  .degree  than  such  colors  as  are  derived 
from  vegetables. 

"  The  most  insoluble  colors  are  therefore  the  most  durable, 
and  those  which  are  extremely  soluble  are  the  most  fugitive, 
and  there  is  not  an  instance  where  a  very  soluble  or  liquid 
color  is  a  permanent  one.  As  a  proof  of  this  assertion,  we 
will  take  the  sulphate  of  indigo  (chemic),  which  is  soluble  to 
an  unlimited  extdnt,  but  is  remarkably  fugitive  ;  while  the 
indigo  from  which  it  was  prepared,  is  the  most  durable  color 
afforded  by  the  vegetable  kingdom.  There  are  other  exam- 
ples of  this  kind. 

"We  will  return  from  this  digression  to  the  second  or 
partially  soluble  kind  of  color,  which  are  almost  all  those  col- 
ors employed  by  woolen  dyers ;  the  vegetable  dyestuffs  not 
forming  absolute  insoluble  compounds  with  the  metals  and 
earths,  excepting  in  the  case  of  indigo,  and,  perhaps,  one  or 
two  more  instances.  This  kind  of  color  is  that  which  forms 
the  topical  colors  (see  calico-printing),  or  the  colors  of  appli- 
cation of  the  calico  and  woolen  printer;  or  such  as  (all  the 
materials  of  the  color  being  mixed  together)  are  then  applied 
at  once  by  the  block,  and  afterwards  fixed  by  steaming,  called 
steam  colors. 

"  The  slight  degree  of  solubility  in  a  color  of  this  kind  is 
the  cause  of  its  direct  union  with  animal  or  vegetable  fibres ; 
because  the  whole  force  of  the  respective  affinities  of  the  sub- 
stance that  compose  the  color,  not  having  been  required  to 
produce  insolubility,  there  still  remains  in  each  of  the  con- 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  31 

stitiients,  a  power  of  combining  with  a  third  substance,  or 
the  article  to  be  colored. 

"Whereas,  in  an  insoluble  color,  the  whole  force  of  the 
two  affinities  having  been  expended  upon  each  other  in  order 
to  produce  insolubility,  there  exists  no  attraction  in  this  com- 
pound for  the  fabric  to  which  it  should  be  applied  ;  hence 
the  impossibility  of  combining  such  a  color  with  animal  or 
vegetable  tissues. 

"Therefore,  such  colors  as  are  the  most  insoluble  are  those 
whose  constituents  are  drawn  together  by  an  attraction  so 
powerful,  as  to  neutralize  the  affinities  which  have  produced 
it,  and  where  the  metal  in  the  compound  exists  in  a  highlv 
oxidized  state,  and  the  coloring  principle,  in  conjunction  with 
it,  exhibits  the  character  of  an  acid;  and,  as  these  properties 
of  the  insoluble  color  have  all  to  be  transferred  to  the  soluble 
one,  before  it  can  possess  the  utmost  degree  of  permanence 
of  which  it  is  susceptible,  the  addition  of  a  third  substance, 
capal)le  of  communicating  these  qualities  to  it,  becomes 
absolutely  necessary  in  the  composition  of  colors  for  wool  or 
woolen  goods. 

"It  will  be  seen  that  the  substance  to  be  employed  for  this 
purpose  must  have  the  power  of  combining  with  ])oth  the 
color  and  the  matter  that  is  to  be  colored,  as  well  as  a  strono- 
inclination  to  form  a  solid  combination  with  them.  These 
powers  and  tendencies  Ave  find  to  exist  in  tartar,  in  an  emi- 
nent degree,  besides  having  the  property  of  minutely  divid- 
ing the  particles  of  color,  and  softening  the  action  of  the 
mordant  upon  the  animal  fibre. 

"Practice  and  experience  have  long  ago  taught  woolen-dyers 
the  advantage  of  employing  tartar  as  a  useful  auxiliary  in  the 
composition  of  coloring  solutions,  without  any  knowledge  of 
the  theory  by  which  these  advantages  could  be  accounted  for. 
This  accounts  for  the  great  use  of  tartar  in  such  colors  as  arc 
applied  at  one  operation  in  woolen-dyeing.  Tartaric,  citric, 
oxalic,  and  other  crystallizable  acids,  modify  the  shade  and 
render   the    color   more    insoluble,    but,    having  great  acid 


32  THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 

powers,  they  will  quickly  re-dissolve  their  original  precipi- 
tates, so  that  they  are  not  so  well  adapted  for  this  purpose  as 
their  super-salts  would  be,  which,  having  less  solubility  than 
the  uncombined  acids,  increase  the  permanency  of  the  color 
in  proportion  to  their  degree  of  insolubility  and  disposition 
to  preserve  a  solid  combination. 

"For  this  reason  the  salts,  with  excess  of  acid,  are  better 
qualified  to  form  ingredients  in  the  mordant  of  a  color  than 
their  respective  acids,  when  in  a  free  and  more  soluble  state ; 
and,  in  the  whole  number  of  these  salts  now  used  by  woolen- 
dyers,  the  supertartrate  of  potash  (or  cream  of  tartar)  is  the 
best  adapted  to  obtain  the  desired  end  ;  but,  in  cotton-dyeing 
and  calico-printing,  no  advantageous  use  can  be  made  of  it 
for  this  purpose  ;  it  will  unite  with  color,  but  it  has  no  affinity 
to  combine  with  vegetable  fibre  ;  it  prevents  the  fixation  of 
the  color  u[)on  the  cotton  fabric,  and  this  resistance  by  the 
acid  to  the  application  of  color  to  vegetable  fibre,  is  the 
reason  why  the  proper  scarlet  color  of  the  woolen-dyer  can- 
not be  fixed  upon  cotton  or  linen  goods  in  cotton-dyeing  or 
calico-printing,  for  the  excessive  acid  constitution  of  this 
color  prevents  the  complete  saturation  of  the  fabric  with  it. 

''The  brilliancy  of  color  depends  upon  the  purity  of  its 
component  substances,  and  its  intensit}^  upon  the  multiplicity 
of  particles  in  a  given  volume  of  it ;  or,  when  the  mass  of 
precipitate  is  minutely  subdivided  into  a  vast  number  of 
smaller  portions  of  color ;  or,  upon  the  amount  of  points 
from  which  the  colored  ray  is  projected  upon  the  eye. 

"In  the  operation  of  dyeing,  supertartrate  of  potash  pro- 
motes this  subdivision  of  the  particles  of  color,  and  the  vio- 
lence of  ebullition  greatly  accelerates  their  comminution,  as 
also  the  high  temperature  of  steam,  in  the  process  of  fixing 
colors  by  steam. 

"Those  colors  whose  specific  gravities  are  the  greatest,  are 
those'  whose  particles  are  the  most  infinite,  and^  in  conse- 
quence of  this,  possess  the  greatest  intensity  or  vivacity  ; 
they  are  also  the  most  insoluble,  and,  of  course,  they  will  be 


THE    AMERICAX    DYER.  83 

the  niosl  peinument :  they  are  those  colors  in  whose  compo- 
sition an  acid  enters,  cither  as  the  coloring  principle,  or  as  a 
modifier  of  the  colors.  They  are  the  mineral  colors,  or  colors 
that  have  been  made  to  approach  to  the-  nature  of  mineral 
colors,  by  the  addition  of  an  acid  salt,  which  has  greatly 
multiplied  their  particles,  and  produced  the  insoluble  state  in 
them. 

"The  ailinities  of  color,  for  such  fabrics  as  it  is.  customary 
to  dye,  are  greatest  for  animal  substances  ;  next  for  vegeto- 
animal,  and,  last,  for  vegetable  matters,  or,  in  order,  wool, 
silk,  and  cotton.  In  consequence  of  these  degrees  of  attrac- 
tion which  exist  between  cohn*,  and  the  substances  to  be 
colored,  there  is  found  to  be  a  difterence  in  the  ease  with 
which  they  can  be  imbued  with  color,  in  proportion  to  their 
respective  atiinitics  ;  and,  on  this  inequality  in  the  attractive 
forces,  originates  the  necessity  of  employing  different  methods 
and  processes  for  combining  the  same  color  with  wool,  silk, 
or  cotton,  in  the  operation  of  dyeing  them." 

From  these  observations  we  come  to  the  following  conclu- 
sions  :  — 

Fir.sf.  That  if  a  metallic  or  earthy  salt  is  mixed  with 
coloring  matter  in  solution,  a  precipitate  which  is  more  or 
less  soluble  is  formed.     This  precipitate  is  called  color. 

Second.  This  precipitate  is  composed  of  the  oxide  of  the 
metal  or  earthy  salt  employed  and  the  coloring  matter,  and 
a  great  excess  of  acid,  or  of  coloring  matter,  \\\\\  re-dis- 
solve a  part,  and  sometimes  all  of  the  precipitate  which  was 
first  formed. 

Thivd.  The  mixed  solution,  after  the  color  is  precipitated, 
contains  the  acid  of  such  salts  as  were  employed  to  pre- 
cipitate the  coloring  matter,  and,  in  some  cases,  retains  a 
small  amount  of  the  coloring  matter  with  it ;  but  if  the  color- 
ing matter  should  be  in  union  with  an  alkali  (prussiate  (^f 
potash  for  instance),  in  this  case,  the  supernatant  li(|U()r  con- 
tains an  alkaline  salt,  composed  of  the  acid  of  the  metallic  or 
earthy  salt  and  the  alkali  that  was  in  conjunction  with  the 
5 


34:  THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 

coloring   matter.     Here    ca   double    decomposition   has    been 
effected,  and  the  solution  is  colorless. 

Fourth.  Color  may  be  considered,  in  relation  to  dyeing, 
as  of  three  kinds  :  the  insoluble,  the  partly  soluble,  and  the 
very  soluble,  or  liquid. 

Fifth.  The  insoluble  will  only  unite  to  a  fabric  by  virtue 
of  the  affinities  which  its  component  parts  have,  when  sepa- 
rate, for  the  fabric  and  for  each  other.  It  is  the  most  perma- 
nent kind  of  color. 

Sixth.  The  partly  soluble  more  readily  enters  into  com- 
bination with  the  subjects  of  dyeing  in  the  aggregate  state  ; 
its  sparing  solu])ility  aiding  it  to  fix  itself  on  the  material  to 
be  dyed.     It  is  less  permanent  than  the  insoluble  kind. 

Seventh.  The  very  soluble,  or  liquid  color,  may  be  con- 
sidered as  only  a  modification  of  the  other  kinds,  rendered 
more  soluble  by  the  agency  of  an  alkaline  or  acid  menstruum, 
which,  in  acting  as  a  medium  of  solubility,  exercises  so  great 
an  action  upon  it,  as  frequently  to  change  its  nature  and 
destroy  its  durability.  It  very  easily  fixes  itself  upon  a 
fabric,  and  is  very  fugitive. 

Eighth.  Color  has  a  natural  tendency  to  combine  with 
animal  and  vegetable  fibre,  either  in  its  aggregate  state,  or 
by  its  component  parts,  separately,  being  capable  of  uniting 
with  them  ;  and  the  effect  or  result  produced  by  these  affini- 
ties is  termed  dyeing. 

Ninth.  The  affinities  of  color,  or  its  separate  constituents, 
for  animal,  vegetable,  or  vegeto-animal  substances  to  be  col- 
ored, are  the  greatest  for  wool ;  next,  for  silk  and  furs  ;  then, 
for  cotton  and  linen.  AYoolen  and  linen  are  placed  at  the 
extreme  of  the  scale,  and  silk,  which  is  partly  vegetable  and 
partly  animal  matter,  occupies  a  medium  situation  between 
the  two.  Therefore,  by  combining  the  methods,  &c.,  for 
coloring  wool  and  linen,  and  taking  the  mean  result  as  the 
determinate  manner  of  dyeing  the  vegeto-animal  matters  in 
general,  it  ought  to  give  us  those  processes,  &c.,  which  will 
answer  best  for  silk.     Experiment  confirms  this  observation. 


THE    AMERICxSJN^   DYEE.  35 

Tenth.  The  brillianc}',  brightness,  or  beauty  of  color, 
depends  upon  the  purity  of  its  component  substances. 

Eleventh.  The  intensity  or  vivacity  of  color,  consists  in 
the  fineness  and  number  of  the  particles  or  points  projecting 
the  color,  or  upon  the  amount  of  surfaces  reflecting  the 
light. 

Twelfth.  The  permanence  of  color  is  in  proportion  to  its 
approximation  to  the  solid  state,  or  its  disposition  to  form  an 
ins(iluble  compound. 

"The  insoluble  colors  are  perfectly  fast;  the  partly  soluble 
ones  are  moderately  so  ;  the  colors  which  dissolve  to  an  un- 
limited extent  are  very  fugitive.  But  the  amount  of  perma- 
nency can  be  increased  in  a  color  possessing  little  solubility, 
by  the  addition  of  a  definite  amount  of  tartar." 

It  has  been  shown  in  the  beginning  of  the  above  extract, 
that  if  ,a  metallic  or  earthy  salt  were  poured  into  a  solution 
of  coloring  matter,  it  will  immediately  precipitate  the  col- 
oring matter,  that  precipitate  being  called  color,  &c.  This 
precipitate  will  again  become  soluble  in  the  scjution  from 
which  it  was  formed,  by  boiling  the  solution,  and  it  will  com- 
bine with  the  wool  or  fabric  while  in  a  state  of  solubility,  and 
after  the  wool  has  been  brought  to  the  .particular  depth  of 
color  desired,  should  we  continue  the  boiling,  the  color  is  seen 
to  grow  poorer,  or,  we  may  say,  the  color  boils  off.  The  cause 
of  this  phenomenon  is,  the  coloring  matter  is  in  excess  of  the 
mordant,  which  causes  a  reaction  to  take  place  ;  the  coloring- 
matter  has  begun  to  re-dissolve  the  precipitate  that  was  formed 
and  had  fixed  itself  upon  the  wool  or  fabric.  To  remedy  this 
we  have  to  give  it  more  mordant  by  saddening  wnth  such 
metallic  or  earthy  salts  as  the  particular  color  or  shade 
requires.  This  boiling  off  of  the  color  is  very  noticeable  in 
coloring  scarlet,  but  more  especially  in  coloring  black  on 
cotton,  when,  after  the  color  is  brought  up  rich  and  full  (if 
the  coloring  matter  in  the  dyeing  bath  is  in  excess  of  the 
mordant  upon  the  cotton  to  take  up  all  the  coloring  matter), 
it  will  begin  to  grow  paler  or  more  slaty  colored,  the  longer 


36  THE    AMERICAX   DYER. 

you  leave  it  in  the  coloring  solution,  and  finally  it  will  come 
down  to  a  slate  color  instead  of  being  a  black. 

This  proves  that  when  the  coloring  matter  is  in  excess,  it 
has  the  propert}''  of  dissolving  its  own  insoluble  precipitate. 
This  also  shows  or  points  out  the  necessity  of  the  dyer  exer- 
cising a  great  amount  of  care  and  judgment  in  proportioning 
the  mordants  and  dyestuffs  in  relative  quantities,  in  order  that 
they  may  saturate  each  other  without  having  either  of  them 
in  the  bath  as  a  useless  superfluity,  but  if  either  of  thqm  is 
allowed  to  exceed  the  other,  let  it  be  the  mordant.  But  to 
obviate  this  boiling  off,  as  it  is  termed,  whenever  the  wool, 
cotton,  or  fabric  has  been  brought  up  to  the  desired  shade, 
draw  off  the  tub  or  kettle,  or  else  take  out  the  yarn  or  cloth 
for  fear  of  the  color  changing  by  too  long  au  exposure  to  the 
action  of  the  colorins:  solution. 


REMARKS   ON   COTTON-DYEING. 

Cotton  is  colored  in  the  raw  state,  in  yarn  and  in  the 
woven  fabric,  but  more  generall\'  in  the  3'arn.  All  dyers  are 
aware  that  it  is  more  difficult  to  fix  colors  upon  cotton  per- 
manently than  it  is  either  upon  silk  or  wool,  as  it  requires 
stronger  and  different  mordants  for  cotton  than  for  wool. 

In  coloring  cotton  in  the  raw  state,  w^e  abridge  the  follow- 
ing remarks  upon  the  subject  from  Gibson's  System  and 
Science  of  Colors:  "In  dyeing  raw  cotton,  we  seem  to  be 
performing  an  operation  contrary  to  its  nature,  for  it  has  au 
obstinate  aversion  to  imbibe  the  liquid  color,  or  even  the  mor- 
dant which  is  intended  to  combine  with  the  coloring  matter, 
and  when  by  excessive  boiling  the  cotton  has  been  forced  to 
absorb  a  certain  quantity  of  the  liquid,  it  will  retain  it  with 
such  tenacity''  that  no  common  draining  will  clear  it  from 
watery  solution  of  the  mordant  sufficiently  to  enable  it  to 
receive  the  full  benefit  of  coloring  solutions.     Its  very  feeble 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  37 

affinity  for  coloring  matters  is  another  difficulty  that  the  dyers 
have  to  contend  with,  and  colors  in  most  cases  seem  to  com- 
bine with  it  only  through  the  intervention  of  a  third  substance." 
This  third  substance  we  will  term  tannin,  or  impregnating  the 
cotton  with  some  astringent  substance  before  applying  the 
mordant;  this  astringent  substance  we  obtain  from  sumac, 
nutgalls,  or  cutch  ;  and  for  yaru-dyeing,  divi  divi  is  used. 
It  api)ears  that  cotton  has  a  very  strong  attraction  for  the 
materials  named  above  ;  therefore,  we  see  the  propriety  of 
first  giving  the  cotton  the  tannin  operation  before  we  apply 
the  mordant,  previously  to  immersing  it  in  the  coloring  solu- 
tion, especially  for  dark  colors  and  all  other  colors  that  will 
bear  such  a  foundation." 

"  The  operation  of  giving  the  cotton  the  tannin  preparation 
before  the  mordant  is  applied,  is  not  so  much  a  dyeing  opera- 
tion as  it  is  a  preparatory  step  to  the  succeeding  processes  of 
fixinji"  the  color  in  the  fibre  of  the  cotton.  It  is  not  in  this 
sense  a  dye  or  color,  but  only  the  agent  or  medium  whereby 
a  union  is  more  easily  elfected  between  the  cotton  to  be 
colored  and  the  coloring  matter  to  be  used. 

"The  process  of  tanning  hides  and  the  sumacing  of  cotton 
are  so  similar  or  identical  that  the  sumacing  of  the  cotton  is 
not  inaptly  called  the  tannin  process,  to  distinguish  from 
those  operations  which  produce  the  color." 

"  When  cotton  has  been  subjected  to  an}'  process  prepara- 
tory to  receiving  the  coloring  matter,  whether  that  process, 
consisted  in  sumacing  or  mordanting,  or  even  to  partially 
color  it,  we  have  observed  that  it  was  very  difficult  to  drain 
out  the  superfluous  liquor,  and  that  this  liquor  of  the  first 
process  being  carried  in  the  raw  cotton  into  that  of  a  dillerent 
kind  in  the  second  process,  either  partially  destroyed  the 
latter  solution  or  would  prevent  it  from  having  its  full  elfect." 
Therefore,  we  should  use  the  extractor  to  take  out  all  liquor 
possible  from  the  cotton  before  we  immerse  it  in  the  next 
solution.  In  cotton-yarn  dyeing,  this  can  be  done  sufficiently 
by  luringing  the  yaru  thoroughly. 


38  THE    AMEEICAX   DYER. 

"The  coloring  of  wool  and  the  coloring  of  cotton  differ 
greatly,  for  the  result  of  dyeing  is  very  different  upon  the 
two  materials,  that  of  cotton  being  a  mechanical  fixation  of 
color  iij)on  the  fibre  of  the  cotton;  but  the  coloring  of  wool  is 
a  cltemical  combination  of  the  color  witJtin  the  fibres  of  the 
two?." 

"The  inferiority  in  point  of  permanency  of  colors  on  cot- 
ton to  those  on  wool  is  the  great  object  of  the  dy^r  to  over- 
come, and  can  only  be  done  by  first  bringing  the  cotton  into 
such  a  state  for  receiving  and  retaining  color,  which  he  can 
do  by  exposing  it  to  the  tannin  process,  or  by  animalizing 
it.  Secondly,  then,  in  a  fresh  bath  or  solution,  submitting 
the  cotton  to  the  mordant  process,  which  is  a  solution  of 
metallic  or  earthy  salts.  Then,  finally,  subjecting  it  to  the 
dyeing  process  in  another  solution,  composed  of  such  coloring 
matters  as  that  particular  color  will  require,  taking  care 
through  all  these  processes  to  keep  them  isolated,  so  that  no 
portion  of  one  solution  shall  be  carried  into  the  succeeding 
one ;  and  this  can  be  done  by  extracting  the  cotton  between 
each  process  or  operation." 


REMARKS   ON   COTTON-YARX  DYEING. 

Blue  is  colored  upon  cotton-yarn  by  first  passing  it  through 
a  nitrate  of  iron  solution,  and  afterwards  worked  through  a 
solution  of  yellow  prussiate  of  potash,  acidulated  with  either 
muriatic  or  sulphuric  acid.  The  yarn  should  be  washed  off 
after  it  comes  out  of  the  iron  solution  before  it  is  put  into  the 
prussiate  solution,  in  order  to  free  it  from  the  superfluous 
acid  and  iron ;  the  yarn  is  then  passed  through  the  prussiate 
solution  for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes.  Considerable  care 
must  be  taken  in  adding  the  acid  to  the  prussiate  solution,  or 
else  the  color  is  very  liable  to  change,  becoming  gray  after  it 
is  dried.     The  best  method,  and  most  proper  one,  is  first  to 


THE    AMEIUCAX    DYEK.  39 

tlissolvc  the  pru.ssiate  in  hot  Wiiter,  then  to  add  it  to  the 
tub  of  cold  water  in  which  you  intend  to  coh)r ;  then  add 
sufficient  i5ul[)hniic  acid  to  the  solution  to  have  it  perceptil)le 
to  the  taste. 

The  above  method  is  for  eight  shades  of  blue  ;  but  for  deep 
shades  the  yarn  is  passed  through  a  strong  nitrate  of  iron 
solution,  then  from  the  iron-tub  through  a  potash  lye  solution 
(which  will  fix  the  iron  oxide  upon  the  yarn),  then  pass  it 
through  the  prussiate-tui).  But  a  still  darker  and  better  blue 
may  be  obtained  by  adding  to  the  nitrate  of  iron  solution 
some  tin  crystals.  Pass  the  yarn  through  this  solution,  then 
enter  it  immediately  into  the  prussiate  solution,  to  which  has 
been  added  some  muriatic  acid.  You  must  pass  the  yarn 
from  the  iron  solution,  without  washing,  into  the  prussiate 
solution.  This  method  gives  a  full,  deep,  rich  blue,  and  is 
the  most  generally  used  of  any.  The  muriatic  acid  gives 
a  purple  bloom  to  the  color,  which  sulphuric  acid  docs  not. 
(See  recipes  for  blue  on  cotton-yarn.) 

Nankeen  color  is  produced  by  merely  passing  the  yarn 
through  a  nitrate  of  iron  solution.  This  is  the  easiest  color 
made  upon  cotton,  and  at  the  same  time  it  is  very  permanent. 
If  the  yarn  is  passed  through  a  weak  soap  solution  after  it  is 
taken  from  the  iron-tub,  it  gives  a  clearness  to  the  shade  ; 
besides,  it  will  soften  the  yarn  ;  but  the  yarn  must  be  washed 
from  the  iron-bath  before  it  is  put  inio  the  soap  solution. 

Purples,  reds,  clarets,  and  such  shades  are  produced  by 
tirst  steeping  the  yarn  in  sumac,  then  passing  it  through  the 
spirit-tub  (plumb-tub),  then  through  logwood,  with  a  little 
spirits.  The  spirits  for  these  shades  vary,  and  are  n)ade 
diirerently.  The  manner  of  making  them  can  be  found  in 
another  part  of  this  work.      (See  Mordants. for  Cotton.) 

In  using  barwood  for  any  of  the  al)ove  shades,  it  being  so 
slightly  soluble  in- water,  it  should  be  thrown  lo(Jse  into  the 
dye-tui),  and  after  being  boiled,  the  yarn  is  put  into  the  solu- 
tion ;  the  yarn,  having  tirst  been  sumacked,  and  then  passed 
through  the  spirit-tub,  will  combine  with  and  take  up  all  the 


40  THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 

dissolved  color ;  the  water  becoming  exhausted  of  color  will 
now  dissolve  more  of  the  color  from  the  barwood,  which  will 
be  again  taken  up  by  the  yarn,  and  so  on  until  the  tin  which 
is  upon  the  yarn  becomes  saturated  with  the  color.  The 
color  is  then  at  its  richest  and  bri<>htest  hue.  A  fjreat  deal 
of  experience  and  attention  is  required  of  the  dyer  to  l)e  able 
to  decide  the  exact  time  to  take  the  yarn  out  of  the  barwood 
solution,  otherwise  he  may  have  a  brownish  red  by  leaving  it 
in  too  long,  or  have  a  poor  color  by  taking  it  out  too  soon. 
The  yarn  must  be  thoroughly  washed  after  coming  out  of  the 
spirit-tub,  before  putting  it  into  the  barwood  solution,  for  if 
there  were  any  loose  tin-liquor  upon  the  yarn,  the  dye  wood 
being  in  the  tub,  loose,  will  take  up  this  loose  mordant  and 
will  become  more  or  less  colored,  and  thus  retain  a  portion  of 
the  coloring  matter  which  should  go  upon  the  yarn.  For 
this  reason  the  yarn  must  be  washed  from  the  spirits.  Inat- 
tention to  this  is  the  greatest  cause  of  the  colors  not  being  of 
the  same  shade  ;  even  with  the  best  of  care  and  attention  the 
wood-grounds  will  con>e  out  of  the  bath  richly  colored. 

Purpurine  and  alizarine  are  now  largely  used  for  coloring 
reds  upon  cotton-yarn,  as  well  as  for  printing  red  upon 
cotton-cloth. 

Yellow  was  formerly  colored  on  cotton-yarn  by  acetate  of 
alumina  and  quercitron  bark,  or  fustic,  which  is  a  fast  color 
on  cotton  when  colored  by  these  substances.  In  connection 
with  this  method  of  coloring  yellow,  some  very  interesting 
facts  were  obtained  from  Mr.  Thom  by  Parnell,  who  gives 
them  in  his  Applied  Chemistry,  from  which  we  abridge  the 
following:  "Alumina  has  a  stronger  attraction  for  the  color- 
ing matter  of  madder  than  for  that  of  logwood,  and  a 
stronger  attraction  for  that  of  logwood  than  for  that  of  quer- 
citron bark.  When  a  skein  of  cotton-yarn  impregnated  with 
acetate  of  alumina  is  immersed  into  a  decoction  of  quercitron 
it  receives  a  fast  yellow  color.  If  this  yarn  is  washed  for 
some  time  and  kept  in  a  hot  decoction  of  logwood,  the  alumina 
parts   with  the  coloring  principle   of  quercitron  to  combine 


THE    AMERICAN    DYEK.  41 

\Ylth  that  of  the  logwood,  aiul  the  color  of  the  y.iiii  is  cliMngcd 
from  yellow  to  purple.  Now,  if  it  is  next  inmiersed  i\)V  i\ 
few  hours  in  a  hot  decoction  of  madder,  the  ahunina  parts 
with  the  coloring  principle  of  the  logwootl  to  unite  with  that 
of  madder,  the  color  changing  from  purple  to  red.  The 
amount  of  the  alumina  upon  the  yarn  does  not  appear  to 
diminish  while  these  substitutions  are  taking  place." 

Th^kSame  law  is  applicable  if  we  use  for  a  mordant  the  tin 
solutions  instead  of  the  acetate  of  alumina  ;  the  result  is  the 
same  in  the  change  of  the  fiist  named  above,  for  if  a  quantity 
of  yarn  Avere  colored  yellow  by  tin  spirits  and  bark  and  then 
put  in  a  hot  solution  of  logwood,  a  certain  amount  of  the 
yellow  is  displaced  by  the  coloring  principle  of  the  logwood. 
Cotton-yarn  is  colored  yellow  with  acetate  of  lead  and 
chrome  when  permanency  is  not  absolutely  necessary. 

The  chrome  yellows,  so  called,  have  superseded  the  vege- 
table colored  yellows  upon  cotton-yarn  and  cloth.  The 
chromate  of  lead  is  not  only  used  for  yellows,  but  also  for 
ofreens  and  oranijes. 

To  color  a  yellow  with  the  chromate  of  lead,  the  yarn  is 
first  passed  through  a  solution  of  either  the  nitrate  or  acetate 
of  lead  ;  it  is  then  wrung  out  well  and  passed  through  a  solu- 
tion of  chrome  ;  the  chromate  of  lead  is  thus  formed  within 
the  fibre  of  the  cotton.  The  yarn  is  passed  first  through  the 
lead  solution,  and  then  through  the  chrome  for  a  number  of 
times,  if  dark  and  deep  shades  are  desired.  There  are  other 
shades  of  yellow  obtained  by  adding  muriatic  acid  to  the 
chrome  solution.  Yellows  produced  in  this  manner  are  called 
acid  yellows. 

Green,  on  cotton-yarn  or  cloth,  is  colored  In'  a  number  of 
methods.  When  quercitron  bark  is  used,  the  yarn  is  first 
steeped  in  sumac,  then  passed  through  the  spirits,  then 
washed  off  from  the  spirits  and  worked  in  a  decoction  of  quer- 
citron bark,  to  which  has  been  added  a  quantity  of  muriate 
of  tin  (spirits)  to  raise  the  color.  If  the  yarn  is  washed 
from  this,  and  then  passed  through  a  solution  of  logwood  und 
6 


42  THE    AMERICAN    DYEK. 

Brazil-wood,  we  obtain  a  hrowii.  The  chrome-frrceiis  are 
produced  in  the  same  manner  as  the  chrome-yellows  are, 
being  first  colored  bine  by  the  copperas-vat.  In  this  method 
the  nitrate  of  lead  (Pb  O,  NO^)  should  not  be  used,  as  its 
free  acid  would  destroy'  the  indigo  and  redden  the  hue  ;  there- 
fore the  acetate  of  lead  (Pi)  O,  CJIgOg)  only  should  be 
used.  The  greatest  care  is  requisite  in  coloring  greens  by 
this  process,  so  as  to  avoid  unevenncss  ;  the  yarn  showld  be 
well  wrung  out  from  each  solution,  and  washed  as  soon  as 
possible  from  the  chrome  solution;. 

In  coloring  green  with  iodine-green,  or  what  is  termed  the 
Qnethyl-gveen,  the  yarn  or  cloth  is  first  steeped  in  sumac  for  a 
few  hours,  then  rinsed  off  and  wrung  out;  it  is  then  colored 
with  meth^'l-green  crystals,  the  marks  of  which  run  from  B  to 
jjj  E,  according  to  the  shades  produced,  the  heat  for  dyeing 
being  120°  Fahr.  Some  dyers  add  a  small'amount  of  acetic 
acid  (C^IIaOy)  towards  the  last  end  of  the  operation,  to 
brighten  np  the  shade.  Another  method  is  to  pass  the  yarn 
first  through  the  copperas-vat  to  give  it  the  blue,  then  jiass  it 
through  a  weak  solution  of  pyrolignite  of  alumina  (Al.jOg 
2  C4H.O3+4  HO)  ;  it  is  next  wrought  in  a  hot  decoction  of 
fustic,  which  gives  the  yarn  a  rich,  beautiful  shade  of  green. 
Muslins  and  gauzes  are  occasionally  colored  green  with  fustic, 
but  the  goods  go  through  the  same  preparations  as  when  col- 
oring with  quercitron  bark. 

The  next  method  is  by  chemic,  or  sulphate  of  indigo  proc- 
ess. The  yarn  is  first  boiled,  and  then  washed  and  put 
through  a  diluted  solution  of  acetate  of  alumina,  and  washed 
from  this  in  hot  water.  It  is  then  worked  through  a  clecoc- 
tion  of  quercitron  bark,  or  flavine,  and  when  the  yarn  has 
acquired  sufficient  yellow  color  for  the  shade  of  green  wanted, 
it  is  then  passed  through  a  quantity  of  chemic,  added  to  cold 
water.  It  is  wrung  out  from  the  chemic  solution,  and  dried. 
The  chemic  for  this  purpose  must  be  neutralized  with  soda ; 
if  not,  the  free  sulphuric  acid  in  the  chemic  would  destroy  the 
3'ellow,  and  spoil  the  looks  of  the  green  color. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  43 

Some  livers  first  color  the  yarn  a  Prussian  blue  ;  then  finish 
ofl"  with  fustic  or  quercitron  bark. 

Bhick  :  There  are  numerous  methods  for  producing  a  black 
upon  cotton  yarn.      (See  recipes  for  blacks.) 

Browns  are  now  mostly  produced  by  catechu  and  chrome, 
by  first  passing  the  yarn  through  a  solution  of  catechu  or 
cutch  ;  then  through  a  chrome  solution.  In  coloring  browns 
with  catechu,  the  threads  of  the  yarn  are  apt  to  adhere 
together  when  the  yarn  is  dried.  This  is  owing  to  the  gummy 
nature  of  the  catechu  ;  but  l*y  adding  some  blue  vitriol  to  the 
catechu  solution,  this  ol)jection  can  be  avoided.  The  reason 
of  this  chemical  change  in  the  nature  of  catechu,  is  that  the 
blue  vitriol  oxidizes  a  portion  of  the  catechu,  and  although 
the  gum  in  the  catechu  is  insoluble  in  water,  it  becomes  solu- 
ble in  deoxidized  catechu.  Therefore,  all  of  it  is  held  in 
solution  in  the  bath.  This,  however,  does  not  account  for  all 
the  })hen()mena  occurring  during  the  coloring  of  browns  with 
catechu  ;  for  if  we  should  take  two  portions  of  a  solution  of 
catechu,  and  to  one  portion  of  it  add  blue  vitriol  (Cu  OSO3 
or  Cu  SO  4-|-5  H  2  O),  and  to  the  other  portion  add  a  salt  of 
zinc  ;  for  instance,  sulphate  of  zinc  (Zn  OSO3  or  Zn  SO  4-J-7 
HoO),  and  then  pass  a  skein  of  yarn  through  each;  then 
pass  these  through  a  solution  of  lime,  and  expose  them  to  the 
air,  we  will  find  that  the  skein  Avhich  was  passed  through  the 
zinc  will  be  a  dark  brown,  whilst  that  passed  through  the  blue 
vitriol  will  be  more  of  a  cinnamon-brown  color  ;  but  this  would 
naturally  cause  us  to  expect  the  opposite  result,  as  we  know 
that  copper  (blue  vitriol)  gives  up  its  oxygen  more  easily  than 
zinc  does. 

When  yarn  is  first  passed  through  a  solution  of  catechu, 
and  then  jiassed  through  a  chrome  solution,  we  obtain  a  deep 
brown.  The  oxidation  of  the  catechu  takes  place  at  the 
expense  of  the  chromic  acid  (Cr  O3.) 

Whether  the  oxide  of  chromium  (Cr203)  acts  as  a  base  on 
any  part  of  the  dye,  is  not  positively  known  ;  yet,  if  we  should 
burn  a  piece  of  the  yarn  colored  brown  by  this  process,  we 


44  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

will  find  ill  the  asli  both  the  chrome  ami  copper  oxides,  prov- 
ing that  both  the  blue  vitriol  and  chrome  which  are  used,  act 
a  part  in  forming  the  color,  and  also  that  the  color  obtained 
by  this  method  is  something  more  than  the  mere  oxidation  of 
the  catechu. 

Browns  are  sometimes  produced  by  first  steeping  the  yarn 
in  sumac,  then  passing  it  through  a  solution  of  tin  crystals,  or 
through  the  s[)irit-tub;  then  again  work  through  a  decoction 
of  bark,  to  which  has  been  added  a  certain  amount  of  spirits. 
The  yarn  is  washed  fiom  this,  and  then  finished  in  a  solution 
of  hypernic  and  logwood.  The  proportions  of  these  woods 
vary  according  to  the  shade  of  brown  desired. 

The  aniline  browns  are  produced  by  first  sumacing  the  cot- 
ton, and  then  spiriting  as  described  for  the  other  colors,  and 
thoroughly  rinsing  off  in  cold  water  containing  a  very  little 
aqua  ammonia  (NHo+IIO),  in  order  to  neutralize  every  trace 
of  the  acid  contained  in  the  spirits.  The  cotton  is  dyed  at 
120°  Fahr.,  with  the  aniline  brown  powder. 

Orange  color  on  cotton  is  produced  by  diflerent  methods, 
the  most  general  method  now  adopted  being  the  chrome- 
orange,  and  which  is  obtained  by  fixing  upon  the  goods  the 
sub-chromate  of  lead,  as  in  the  coloring  of  chrome-yellows, 
and  then  passing  the  yarn  through  a  hot  lime  solution,  which 
will  combine  with  the  chromic  acid,  forming  a  deep  orange 
color.  This  passing  the  yarn  through  the  hot  lime  solution  is 
called  or  teinicd  the  raising  of  the  orange,  and  is  a  very  try- 
ing and  difficult  operation  ;  for  if  the  lead  solution  has  not 
been  properly  made,  or  not  completely  fixed  upon  the  yarn, 
when  we  come  to  pass  it  through  the  hot  lime,  the  yellow  will 
be  stripped  from  the  yarn  ;  and  should  the  lime  solution  be 
much  below  the  boiling  point,  the  color  would  be  discharged. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  lime  solution  at  the  sjjviiig  of 
the  boil,  as  the  higher  the  temperature  of  the  solution,  the  less 
lime  is  held  in  solution,  thereby  avoiding  the  risk  of  a  failure. 
If  an  orange  is  once  uneven,  it  is  a  very  difficult  matter  to  get 
it  even  aijain. 


THE    AMERICAX   DYER.  45 

In  preparing  the  lend  solution,  groat  care  is  necessary  to 
have  the  pro[)ortions  of  lead  and  litharge  so  that  they  will 
combine  ;  the  tribasic  acetate  of  lead  should  be  used  for  this 
purpose,  which  is  a  combination  of  three  parts  of  lead,  and 
one  part  of  acetic  acid  ;  this  being  the  best  combination  for 
producing  oranges  and  deep  yellows.  Some  dyers  use  a 
small  quantity  of  lime,  which  causes  a  loss,  as  the  lime  com- 
bines with  the  acetic  acid  in  the  lead,  and  forms  an  acetate 
of  lime  (Ca  O  CJI3O.),  which  would  prevent  a  portion  of  the 
litharge  from  dissolving.  Should  the  lead,  litharge,  and  lime 
not  be  boiled  long  enough,  the  lime  would  convert  the  acetate 
of  lead  into  the  tribasic  state  (which  is  what  we  wish  to  do)  ; 
but,  it  will  be  observed,  that  this  is  at  the  expense  of  the 
lead,  which  we  are  intending  to  use  for  the  production  of  the 
color.  The  proportions  of  acetate  of  lead  and  litharo^e 
vary,  some  dyers  using  equal  parts ;  the  proportions  which 
we  believe  to  be  correct  are,  six  parts  of  crystallized  acetate 
of  lead  (Pb  O,  CJIA+3  HO),  eight  parts  of  litharge 
(Pb  O),  and  thirty  parts  of  water,  these  to  be  boiled  until 
all  the  litharge  is  dissolved.  In  coloring  with  lead  solutions 
in  water  that  contains  sulphate  or  carbonate  of  lime,  the  lead 
will  be  precipitated  ;  the  lead  is  also  lost,  it  being  rendered 
insoluble  and  useless  as  a  dye,  as  every  ounce  of  carbonate 
of  lime  will  render  useless  a  little  more  than  five  ounces  of 
lead.  When  the  basic  acetate  of  lead  (Pb  C4ILO0,  brown 
sugar  of  lead)  is  used,  the  proportions  are  twenty-five  parts 
of  lead  to  fifteen  of  litharge.  The  acetate  and  the  litharge 
are  put  into  a  boiler  half  full  of  water,  it  is  then  boiled  until 
all  the  litharge  is  dissolved,  then  there  is  one  pound  of  lime 
added  to  it  and  allowed  to  settle  ;  the  clear  liquor  is  put  into 
another  tub;  seven  pounds  of  chrome  are  dissolved  in  a  tub 
or  vessel  by  itself,  for  coloring;  two  other  tubs,  large  enough 
to  hold  the  amount  of  yarn  that  is  to  be  colored,  are  filled 
with  water ;  to  one  is  added  some  of  the  lead  solution,  to  the 
other  some  lime-water ;  the  yarn  is  then  worked  in  the  lead- 
tub  and  wrung  out ;  then  passed  through  the  lime-water,  and 


46  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

wrung  out ;  then  more  of  the  lead  sohition  is  added  to  the 
lead-tub,  and  the  3'arn  is  again  passed  through  it ;  then  add 
more  lime-water  to  the  lime-tub,  and  pass  it  through  that, 
wringing  the  yarn  out  at  each  immersion  ;  it  is  then  passed 
through  the  chrome  solution,  then  through  hot  lime-water. 
(See  recipe  for  fast  orange  on  cotton-yarn.) 


CALICO  -  PRINTING. 

.  This  very  important  branch  of  industry  (we  might  say  of 
the  dyer's  art) ,  alms  at  producing  colored  patterns  upon  calico, 
linen,  and  silk  tissues.  Calico-printing  is  the  most  important 
part  of  the  dyer's  art,  as  it  is  based  upon  the  same  principles 
as  that  of  dyeing,  but  is,  in  the  practical  execution  of  it,  far 
more  difficult ;  partly,  because  the  colors  have  to  be  applied 
to  certain  portions  only  of  the  fabric,  while  others  either  have 
to  remain  colorless  or  are  discharged  ;  partly  also  because  it 
is  frequently  the  case  that  many  colors  have  to  be  applied 
close  to  each  other. 

The  colors  employed  in  calico-printing  are  of  two  ditl'erent 
kinds,  the  first  being  such  colors  as  are  directly  applied  to  the 
cloth  by  the  aid  of  copper-cylinders,  upon  which  the  designs 
or  patterns  to  be  produced  on  the  cloth  are  engraved. 

To  the  colors  thus  applied,  belong  such  as  the  ochres,  Ber- 
lin blues,  madder-lake,  indigo,  cochineal,  and  nearly  all  of 
the  tar  colors.  The  second  kind  of  colors  are  such  as  are 
produced  by  immersing  the  cloth  printed  with  the  various 
mordants  in  dye-baths,  such  as  madder,  cochineal,  logwood, 
sumac,  and  cutch  ;  the  yellow-coloring  dyewoods,  &c.,  belong 
to  this  kind.  The  various  methods  of  printing  are  chiefly 
the  followinjj :  — 

First.     From  the  thickened  and  mordanted  colors. 

Second.  The  thickened  mordant  only  is  applied,  by 
means  of  the  engraved  copper  cylinders,  to  the  cloth,  which, 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  47 

after  the  mordant  has  hcen  thoronghl}-  fixetl,  is  passed  throijo'h 
the  d^X'-beck. 

Third.  The  entire  piece  of  cloth  is  either  mordanted,  or 
a  color  is  printed,  while  to  such  portions  of  the  cloth  as  are 
to  remain  white  or  are  intended  to  be  afterwards  of  another 
color  or  colors,  or  pattern,  a  resist  is  put  on,  sometimes 
printed  from  the  cylinders,  the  result  being  that  on  the 
portions  of  cloth  thus  protected  with  any  of  the  various 
resists,  the  color  will  not  become  iixed. 

FourlJi.  Colors  may  be,  and  in  practice  are,  largely  pro- 
duced 1)}'  tirst  coloring  the  mordanted  cloth  with  one  kind  of 
color,  and  then  removing  this  color  in  certain  pcjrtions  of 
the  cloth  by  chemicals  which  will  destroy  the  color,  these 
chemicals  being  technicalhj  caUecl  discharges. 

In  order  to  tix  certain  colors  upon  cotton-cloth,  they  have 
to  be  steamed  ;  such  colors  are  termed  steam-colors  ;  while 
such  substances  as  ultramarine,  Guignet  green,  and  the  lakes 
of  madder,  which  are  applied  mechanically  by  the  assistance 
of  albumen,  caseine,  and  gluten,  which  require  the  aid  of 
steam  for  their  lixation,  are  termed,  technically,  surface- 
printed  colors. 

The  mordants  used  in  calico-printing  are  mostly  such  salts 
as  are,  comparatively  speaking,  loose  combinations  of  acid 
and  base,  so  that  the  base  can  easily  unite  with  the  tibre  ;  and 
among  the  mordants  mostly  used,  iron  and  acetate  of  alumina 
(AI^,OyC4lIy03)  occupy  the  first  position,  while  a  solution  of 
aluminate  of  soda  or  alum  is  more  rarely  used.  Acetate  of 
lead  (Pb  C^ILC^)  is  the  mordant  for  producing  chromate  of 
lead  (Pb  Cr  O^),  The  various  combinations  of  tin  are  also 
used  as  mordants.  A  mixture  of  caseine  (curd  of  milk)  and 
lime  is  sometimes  used  as  a  mordant  in  calico-printing,  and 
is  known  in  England  by  the  technical  name  of  Jactarine. 
Caseine  is  prepared  from  the  curd  of  milk  ;  it  is  dissolved  m 
Aveak  caustic  ammonia,  and  the  solution  thus  ol)tained  is 
mixed  with  freshly  prepared  milk  of  lime  (lime-water). 
When  this  substance  is  used  for  a  mordant,  the  cloth  is  steeped 


48  THE    AMERICAX    DYEH. 

in  it  previous  to  being  colored.  The  cloth  is  dried  iifler 
beino;  taken  out  of  the  caseine-lime  bath.  The  drvini;  causes 
the  caseinc  to  remain  in  an  insoluble  state  in  the  tibre  of  the 
cloth,  and  will  resist  washing  with  soap  and  alkaline  fluids. 
"When  the  doth  is  dried  from  this  mordant  it  has  a  peculiar 
stitTness,  so  that  although  its  atiinity  for  coloring  substances 
has  become  nearly  equal  to  that  of  wool,  it  is  far  behind 
wool,  owing  to  its  lack  of  lustre  ;  but  to  avoid  this  stillness, 
this  mordant  is  mixed  with  Gallipoli  oil  previous  to  steeping 
the  cloth  in  it.  Tannic  acid,  albumen,  dried  white  of  eggs 
re-dissolved  in  water,  and  vegetal )le  gluten  are  used  as  mor- 
dants in  calico-printing.  In  using  caseine  and  lime  for  a 
mordant,  we  are  not  limited  merely  to  the  mineral  colors ; 
for  by  its  use  the  various  vegetable  colors  can  be  tixed  upon 
the  cloths  by  tirst  converting  the  vefjetable  colorins;  matter 
into  lakes  by  means  of  alumina  or  the  salts  of  tin,  and  then 
using  these  lakes  in  the  same  manner  as  powdered  mineral 
colors.  "When  cloth  is  mordanted  with  the  caseine  and  lime 
process,  and  printed  with  the  mineral  colors,  very  full  colors 
are  obtained,  w'hich  in  many  patterns  would  not  be  desirable. 
This  objection  is  remedied  (when  we  wish  to  bring  out  the 
shades  and  half-colors  in  the  full-colored  impressions)  by 
placing  the  printed  cloth  upon  an  absorbing  ground,  with  the 
colored  or  face  side  of  the  cloth  upon  this  absorbing  ground, 
and  then  pressing  the  forms  on  the  back  of  the  cloth  ;  this  will 
deprive  the  cloth  of  some  of  its  color,  and  by  this  process 
numerous  patterns  can  be  produced. 

Thickenings  :  In  order  to  give  the  colors  or  mordants  used 
in  printing,  either  b}'  block  or  cylinders,  the  proper  consist- 
ency, there  is  mixed  in  them  what  are  called  thickenings, 
which  consist  of  such  substances  as  Senegal  gum,  tragacanth, 
leicome,  British  gum,  dextrine,  salep,  flour,  gluten,  pipe- 
clay with  gum,  glue  and  size,  sulphate  of  lead,  sugar,  molas- 
ses, glycerine,  starch,  and  sometimes  chloride  and  nitrate  of 
zinc  (Zm  CI  —  Zn  OXO-).  The  colors  and  mordants  depend 
for  their  purity  upou  the  quality  of  the  thickenings.     British 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  49 

gum  made  from  starch  is  most  geneniUy  used.  In  the  selec- 
tion of  thickenings  we  should  keep  in  mind  that  those  mor- 
dants that  are  very  acid  in  their  nature  cannot  be  mixed 
with  starch,  because  the  starch  will  lose  its  consistency  when 
mixed  with  a  substance  that  is  very  acid  ;  and  again,  such 
metallic  preparations  as  basic  or  sub-acetate  of  lead,  the 
solutions  of  tin,  and  nitrate  of  copper  and  of  iron  will  coagu- 
late gum  ;  for  which  reason  it  should  not  be  used  as  a  thicken- 
ing for  the  above  substances. 

In  calico-printing  Ihere  are  used  compositions  called  resists 
or  reserves,  which,  when  printed  upon  the  cloth,  prevent  any 
of  the  colors  from  fixing  themselves  to  that  part  or  portion 
of  the  cloth  which  has  this  resist  composition  printed  upon 
it ;  the  result  being  that  those  parts  or  portions  will  be  left 
white.  Most  generally  the  resist  is  used  with  the  view  of 
preventing  the  fixation  of  indigo  to  certain  parts  of  the  cloth, 
so  that  it  shall  remain  white  where  these  resists  are  applied. 
The  same  results  are  obtained  by  discharges,  which  we  shall 
notice  hereafter. 

The  resists  are  made  up  from  pasty  substances,  such  as 
pipe-clay,  fat,  oil,  and  sulphate  of  lead  (Pb  SOy)  ;  to  these 
are  added  such  substances  as  will  readily  yield  oxygen  ;  for 
instance,  sulphate,  nitrate,  and  acetate  of  copper,  a  mixture 
of  red  prussiate  of  potash  and  caustic  soda  solution. 

There  are  cases  where  resists  are  composed  so  that  they  act 
as  a  mordant  (alumina  or  iron  mordants)  for  other  colors, 
the  parts  of  the  cloth  on  which  the  resist  is  printed  and  left 
white  being  colored  by  passing  the  cloth  through  the  dye-tub 
or  dye-beck  which  contains  another  dyestutf  in  solution, 
which  may  be  madder,  quercitron  bark,  or  some  other  dye- 
wood.  The  so-called  ivhiie  resist,  for  cylinder  printing, 
consists  of  acetate  or  sulphate  of  copper,  or  acetate  of  lead, 
thickened  with  gum  or  dextrine  solution.  After  this  compo- 
sition has  been  printed  on  the  cloth  by  the  cylinders,  the 
pieces  are  run  through  the  indigo-vat  until  the  depth  of  color 
desired  is  obtained.     They  are  then  passed  through  an  acidu- 

7 


50  THE    AMERICAN  DYER. 

lated  bath  until  the  parts  on  which  the  resist  was  printed 
have  turned  white.  The  rationale  of  this  process  is  the  fol- 
lowing:  "As  soon  as  the  reduced  or  white  indigo  in  the  vat 
comes  in  contact  with  the  oxide  of  copper  (Cu  O)  it  is  con- 
verted, at  the  expense  of  the  oxygen  of  the  oxide,  into  blue 
indigo,  which  is  precipitated  in  an  insoluble  state  on  the 
resist.  By  the  treatment  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  the 
hydrated  sub-oxide  (red  oxide)  of  copper  is  dissolved,  and 
with  it  the  indiijo  washed  out." 

Instead  of  the  salts  of  copper,  white  resists  are  used,  and 
these  are  composed  of  bichloride  of  mercury  (Hg  CI5)  and 
sulphate  of  zinc  (Zn  OSOy).  The  mercury  acts  in  a  similar 
manner  to  the  salts  of  copper,  and  the  copper  enters  into  an 
insoluble  combination  with  the  reduced  (white)  indigo,  which 
is  precipitated  wherever  the  resist  has  been  applied. 

Discharges  :  These  substances  are  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
ducing, by  chemical  means,  white  designs  or  patterns  upon 
colored  grounds;  or,  in  other  words,  upon  colored  cloth. 
This  is  done  by  destroying  or  discharging  the  color  which  had 
been  previously  dyed  upon  the  whole  surface  of  the  cloth,  or 
by  dissolving  a  previously  applied  mordant.  To  discharge 
the  applied  mordant,  certain  acids  are  made  use  of,  such  as 
phosphoric,  arsenic,  oxalic,  lactic,  &c.  These  are  made  to 
combine  with  the  base  contained  in  the  mordant;  but  for  the 
purpose  of  discharging  the  previously  applied  color,  such 
substances  as  bleaching-powder,  chromic  acid,  a  mixture  of 
red  prussiate  of  potash  and  caustic  lye,  permanganate  of  pot- 
ash (KG,  Mn^Oj),  a  paste  composed  of  bromine  (Br)  mixed 
with  water  and  pipe-clay,  nitric  acid,  &c.,  are  used.  All 
these  agents  have  an  oxidizing  effect,  but  tin  crystals  (Sn  CI) 
and  copperas  (sulphate  of  iron)  which  are  also  used  for  dis- 
charges, act  as  a  discharge  by  absorbing  oxygen.  Among  the 
acid  discharges,  tartaric  acid  (CiH^O^)  is  generally  used  for 
this  purpose,  and  alumina  and  oxide  of  iron  employed  as 
mordants ;  sometimes  this  acid  is  mixed  with  bisulphate  of 
soda  (NallSO^). 


THE    AMEllICAX    DYEK.  51 

A  piece  of  cloth  that  is  colored  either  red  or  blue,  to 
■svhich  is,  in  certain  parts,  applied  a  mixture  of  tartaric  acid 
and  pipe-clay  and  gum  (the  latter  as  a  thickening  to  give 
consistency),  will  be  almost  instantly  bleached  if  the  cloth  so 
prepared  should  be  passed  through  a  solution  of  bleaching- 
powders. 

Reducing  Agents  as  Discharges, 

Protochloride  of  tin  (Sn  CI  =  tin  crystals)  is  the  most 
important  of  all  the  reduciug  agents  which  are  applied  to 
goods  colored  with  the  oxide  of  iron.  If  tin  crystals  are 
placed  in  contact  with  oxide  of  iron,  the  result  would  be  the 
formation  of  readily  soluble  protochloride,  which  is  easily 
removed  by  simply  washing,  while,  at  the  same  time,  there  is 
deposited  upon  the  fibres  of  the  cloth  proto-peroxide  of  tin. 

Oxidizing  Agents  as  Discharges. 

The  discharging  of  the  indigo-blue  from  the  calico  is  owing 
to  the  formation  of  isatine  (CielljoN^Oji)  from  the  indigo-hlue 
(CigHiyNoOo),  the  isatine  being  soluble  and  the  indigo-hlue 
being  insoluble  in  water,  so  that  the  soluble  substance  can  be 
taken  out  by  washing. 

Indigo  is  also  discharged  from  the  cloth  by  chromic  acid 
(Cr  Og)  which  is  used  as  bichromate  of  potash  (K,  Cr2  O7), 
the  acid  being  reduced  while  giving  ofi"  oxygen  to  the  chromic 
oxide  (Cr,  O3). 

Calico  may  be  printed  by  the  three  following  methods  :  — 

First.     Dyeing  in  the  dye-beck  (so  called). 

Second.  By  block  or  cylinder  printing  (topical  color- 
printing). 

Third.     By  resist  or  discharge  printing. 

In  the  process  employed  in  coloring  in  the  dye-beck 
(madder  style,  so  called),  the  thickened  mordant  having  a 
faint  coloring  matter  added  to  it  for  the  purpose  of  recogni- 
tion (we  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  mordants  are  nearly 
colorless),  the  pattern  produced  on  the  white  cloth  is  im- 
printed by  the   means  of  cither  blocks    or  cylinders,  upon 


52  THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 

which  the  desired  pattern  is  engraved.  Cylinders  are  now 
generally  used  for  printing  calico,  they  being  made  of  copper, 
on  which  the  pattern  is  engraved.  These  cylinders  are 
revolved  by  the  aid  of  machinery.  There  is  also  a  wooden 
cylinder  connected,  which  is  covered  with  cloth  or  felt,  which 
dips  into  the  vessel  that  contains  the  mordant,  the  copper 
cylinder  being  fed  with  the  mordant  from  this  wooden  roller 
or  cylinder.  Connected  with  the  copper  cylinder  is  a  kind  of 
blunt  knife,  technically  called  the  doctor,  which  scrapes  off 
all  the  superfluous  color  from  that  part  of  the  cylinder  on 
which  there  is  no  engraved  portion  of  the  design  or  pattern. 

Before  the  mordanted  cloth  is  colored  it  has  to  be  kept  for 
some  time,  so  that  the  iron  and  alumina  mordants  will  com- 
bine more  intimately  with  the  fibre  of  the  cloth  (technically 
termed  ageing).  After  this  ageing  process,  the  cloth  has  to 
undergo  a  cleansing  operation  before  it  is  entered  into  the 
dye-beck  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  mordant  has  become  dry,  by 
theaffeinof  it  has  had,  so  that  the  thickenins:  and  faint  colorino: 
matter,  together  with  any  loose  mordant  that  may  be  uncom- 
bined  with  the  fibre,  must  be  removed  by  the  cleansing  opera- 
tion. For  those  goods  which  are  intended  to  be  madder-dyed, 
the  cow-dung  bath  is  required.  Usually  some  chalk  is  added, 
to  saturate  the  acetic  acid  or  the  mordant.  All  calico-print- 
ers agree  that  the  cow-dung  bath  is  requisite,  yet  the  rationale 
of  the  action  of  the  cow-dung  bath  has  not  yet  been  fully 
explained. 

Mercer  substituted  certain  phosphates  and  arsenates  for 
the  cow-dung,  and  obtained  good  results,  and  he  proposes 
the  use  of  phosphate  of  soda  (2  Na  O.  PO)  and  phosphate 
of  lime  (3  Ca  O.  PO).  In  England,  cow-dung  is  rarely 
used  now,  as  it  has  been  superseded  by  silicate  of  soda. 
After  the  cloths  have  been  cleansed  with  cow-dung,  or  its  sub- 
stitutes, they  are  washed,  and  then  they  are  colored.  It  is 
clearly  seen  that  where  there  are  different  mordants  printed 
upon  the  cloth,  a  number  of  colors  can  be  brought  out  upon 
the  same  piece  and  with  the  same  dyestuff.     For  instance,  all 


THE    AMERICi^:N"   DYEK.  53 

sbados  of  pink  and  red,  black,  brown,  violet,  and  lilac,  can 
be  produced  with  madder,  if  alumina  and  iron  mordants  and 
mixtures  of  these  have  been  used  as  mordants,  for  the  color 
will  only  fix  itself  upon  that  portion  of  the  cloth  where  the 
mordant  has  been  applied,  so  that  by  washing  the  cloth,  after 
it  comes  out  of  the  dye-beck,  with  "bran  and  soap,  the  superflu- 
ous color  can  be  removed.  This  washing  operation  is  termed 
clearing.  In  some  cases,  the  madder-colored  cloths  are 
cleared  with  solutions  of  bleaching-powder.  Some  dyes,  in 
order  to  bring  out  their  most  brilliant  tints,  have  to  be  cleared 
by  other  means  than  that  named  above.  For  instance,  the 
Turkey-rede,  after  coming  from  the  finishing  or  dyeing  bath, 
are  submitted  to  a  boiling,  under  pressure^  with  soapsuds  and 
muriate  of  tin  or  tin  crystals. 

Topical  or  Surface  Colors. 
This  consists  of  applying  the  mordants  and  the  thickened 
color  to  the  cloth  at  the  same  time,  or  in  other  words,  simul- 
taneously, the  colors  and  pigments  being  termed  topical  or 
surface  colors,  and  is  known  as  topical  or  surface  printing. 
There  are  two  varieties  of  surface  colors  known  ;  one  of  them 
is  in  the  state  of  a  solution  when  it  is  printed  upon  the  cloth, 
which  becomes  gradually  fixed  and  insoluble  on  the  fibre 
itself.  The  other  variety  is  applied  in  the  insoluble  state 
with  plastic  substances  and  the  thickening,  these  aiding  or 
assisting  the  colors  to  adhere  to  the  fibre,  so  that  a  simple 
washing  does  not  remove  them  ;  ultramarine  is  applied  by 
this  process.  This  manner  of  printing  requires  the  aid  of 
steam  to  fix  as  well  as  to  clear  the  colors,  and  they  are  called 
steam  colors.  This  method  of  printing  is  now  very  exten- 
sively adopted.  After  the  goods  are  printed  in  this  manner, 
they  are  dried  and  then  hung  up  in  a  room  fitted  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  exposed  to  the  action  of  steam  at  100°  Fahr.,  or 
more.  The  length  of  time  the  goods  are  thus  exposed 
depends  upon  several  conditions,  and  varies  in  difi*erent 
print-works,  each  color-mixer  or  printer  having  his  own  par- 


54  THE    AMEKICAX   DYER. 

ticular  time,  but  the  time  is  generally  from  twenty  to  fifty 
miuutes. 

Discharge  Style  of  Printing. 

The  term  discharge  is  given  to  any  composition  that  has 
the  properties  of  bleaching  or  discharging  the  color  which 
has  been  put  upon  the  cloth  or  fabric.  As  a  general  rule, 
discharge  is  applied  to  goods  of  one  color,  such  as  indigo 
and  Turkey-red  colored  fabrics,  upon  which  it  is  required  to 
have  white  patterns ;  and  sometimes,  upon  a  portion  of  these 
white  patterns,  other  colors  are  produced.  The  sul)stances 
used  for  the  discharge  vary  with  the  color  which  was  on  the 
cloth,  as  well  as  with  the  color  intended  to  be  produced  after- 
wards on  the  white  portion  ;  and  the  discharge  is  made  or 
prepared  in  such  a  manner  that  it  must  not  injure  the  fibre  of 
the  cloth. 

Such  materials  as  oxalic,  tartaric,  citric,  diluted  muriatic, 
and  sulphuric  acids,  bisulphate  of  potash,  nitrate  of  lead, 
solutions  of  bleaching-powder,  weak  chlorine  water,  and  the 
bichloride  of  tin  are  used  ;  these  being  thickened  with  suit- 
able materials,  some  of  them  are  so  manipulated  as  to  serve 
as  mordants  for  some  of  the  colors  to  be  applied  after  the 
discharge;  for  instance,  for  j^ellow,  nitrate  of  lead,  with 
.tartaric  acid,  starch  and  water;  for  black,  nitrate  of  iron, 
added  to  a  decoction  of  logwood  ;  for  Berlin  blue,  tin-crystals, 
farina,  and  water  are  used. 

These  discharges  having  been  printed  on  the  cloth,  it  is 
then  put  into  a  solution  of  chloride  of  lime,  and  passed 
through  it,  the  color  which  was  on  it,  when  the  discharge  is 
printed,  is  destroyed,  and,  in  its  place,  the  color  desired  is 
produced  according  to  the  design.  Chromic  acid,  or  a  solu- 
tion of  bichromate  of  potash  acidulated,  is  often  used  as  a 
discharge  ;  the  oxide  of  chromium  (Cr^O^)  produced  will  yield 
a  brown  color. 

Aniline  Printing:  As  regards' the  application  of  aniline 
colors  to  printing,  we  think  th:it  they  may  be  termed  steam 


THE    AMERICAX    DYER.  55 

colors.  The  printing  and  fixing  of  these  colors  is  clTected  by 
the  tbl lowing  methods. 

First.  "The  thickened  mordant  is  printed  on,  and  next 
fixed  either  by  drying,  or  by  ageing  and  steaming  after  dry- 
ing, the  cloth  being  dyed  in  a  solution  of  the  aniline  (red, 
violet,  blue),  the  color  becoming  fixed  to  the  mordanted  por- 
tions only  of  the  cloth." 

/Second.  "  The  thickened  mordant  is  mixed  with  the  ani- 
line dye,  and  then  printed  on  the  cloth,  and  the  fixing  effected 
by  steaming."  "The  mordants  used  in  this  method  are: 
dried  albumen,  blood  albumen,  the  latter  being  bleached  by 
the  action  of  ozone  obtained  by  means  of  oil  of  turpentine, 
vegetable  gluten  in  various  forms."  Instead  of  gluten,  caseine 
can  be  used,  dissolved  in  caustic  lye,  or  in  acetic  acid.  Kuhl- 
mann  and  Lightfoot  recommend  tannate  of  glue.  AVhen 
gluten  is  used  as  a  mordant,  it  is  first  moistened,  and  then 
allowed  to  remain  until  it  becomes  sour.  It  is  then  purified, 
first  treating  it  with  carbonate  of  soda  (Na  O.CO._,),  which 
renders  the  gluten  insoluble.  It  is  then  washed,  and  again 
re-dissolved  in  caustic  soda  lye.  This  solution  is  diluted  with 
water,  and  then  printed  upon  the  cloth,  which  is  then  dried, 
aged,  and  steamed.  After  this  the  cloth  is  washed  in  water, 
and  then  colored  in  a  solution  of  aniline.  Sometimes  gluten 
is  mixed  with  the  aniline  dye,  and  then  printed  upon  the  cloth, 
after  which  it  is  steamed,  then  washed,  and  steamed  again. 
"When  caSeinc  (lactarine  is  its  technical  name  in  England)  is 
used  as  the  mordant,  it  is  first  dissolved  in  caustic  soda  (Na 
O.HO),  and  after  the  cloth  has  been  printed  with  this  mixture, 
the  aniline  color  is  printed  on. 

The  method  of  aniline-printing,  which  was  devised  by 
Gratrix  and  Javal,  consists  in  preparing  an  insoluble  com- 
pound of  tannic  acid.  (C^iH^gOyi-f-S  IIO),  and  an  aniline  dye, 
which  is  thickened  with  Senegal  gum,  and  then  printed  upon 
the  cloth,  which  has  been  previously  mordanted  with  tin-crys- 
tals, or  some  other  suitable  mordant ;  or  there  is  printed  upon 
the  cotton  cloth  a  mordant  composed  of  albumen,  caseine,  or 


o6  THE  amekica:n^  dyer. 

gluten.  The  cloth  is  then  dried  and  pa-sed  through  an  acidu- 
lated solution  of  aniline.  The  first  method  given  above 
(which  is  an  aniline-tannin  compound)  is  prepared  by  adding 
to  the  aniline  solution  as  much  decoction  of  galls  (solution  of 
tannin  would  be  better)  as  is  requisite  to  completely  precipi- 
tate the  aniline  color.  This  precipitate  is  collected  upon  a 
filter,  washed,  and  dissolved  in  acetic  acid  (C4H3O3),  and 
when  thickened  with  gum,  the  solution  is  used  for  printing. 
After  the  printing  the  goods  are  steamed,  and  washed  either 
with  or  without  soap.  A  red  color  requires  a  soap-wash. 
According  to  the  second  method,  the  cloth  i&  treated  with  a 
stannate  of  soda,  after  which  a  tannin-containing  material  is 
printed  upon  the  cloth,  which  is  then  steamed,  which  fixes  the 
mordant.  The  dyeing  operation  is  done  in  a  dye-beck,  the 
same  as  is  employed  for  madder  colors.  The  beck  is  filled 
with  water  acidulated  with  acetic  acid,  and  heated  to  about 
50*^  Fahr.  The  cloth  is  put  into  this  liquid,  and  the  aniline, 
dissolved  in  acetic  acid,  is  added  to  it  gradually;  and  when 
the  requisite  amount  of  color  is  added,  the  bath  is  heated  to 
the  boiling  point.  Aniline  black  is  obtained  on  cotton-yarn 
and  cloth  by  the  means  of  chlorate  of  potash  (KCIO3), 
chloride  of  copper  (Cu  CI),  ferricyanide  of  ammonium,  or 
freshly  precipitated  sulphuret  of  copper.  Naphthylamine 
violet  is  now  obtained  on  cotton-cloth  by  very  much  the  same 
process. 

The  reader  of  this  article,  but  more  especially  the  calico- 
printer,  or  color-mixer,  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  writer  is 
not  a  practical  caUco-2yr inter,  and,  theuefore,  allowances  must 
be  made  for  the  errors  there  may  be  in  the  theory  advanced ; 
for  w'e  have  compiled  it  from  knowledge  obtained  by  inter- 
course and  conversation  with  men  who  have  been  pVactical 
calico-printers  for  most  of  their  lives,  and  the  author  acknowl- 
edges his  obligations  to  these  gentlemen  for  the  practical 
observations  and  theories  communicated  to  him  from  time  to 
time,  which  had  not  come  under  his  own  observation  ;  for 


THE    AMERICAN .  DYER.  57 

without  their  assistance  in  this  respect,  he  could  not  have 
given  so  correct  or  simple  an  explanation  of  calico-printing. 
The  article  has  not  been  written  by  a  Persoz,  a  Gratrix,  or  a 
Spirk,  but  by  a  cl3^er,  and  not  by  a  calico-printer ;  therefore, 
it  must  not  be  criticised  as  though  it  emanated  from  the  brain 
or  pen  of  a  learned  professor  or  practical  chemist. 


The  following  mordants,  preparations,  and  colors  for  calico- 
printing  were  translated  and  compiled  by  Dr.  T.  P.  Shepard 
of  Providence,  R.  I.,  who  has  kindly  permitted  me  to  insert 
them  in  this  work.  They  were  compiled  for  the  use  especially 
of  the  large  calico-printing  establishments  in  the  vicinity  of 
Providence,  and  they  were  found  very  useful,  the  recipes 
being  modern  and  correct  ones.  We  abridge  from  the  preface 
to  his  work  the  following  :  — 

"  Much  that  is  valuable  has  been  necessarily  omitted  to 
bring  it  within  the  compass  of  so  small  a  book ;  but  it  is 
believed  that  it  contains  nuich  which  will  be  useful  to  the 
managers  of  print-works.  For  it  cannot  be  without  interest 
to  them  to  compare  their  own  processes  with  those  current 
abroad ;  and  with  regard  to  what  is  familiar  in  any  art,  it  is 
of  some  consequence  to  discover  that  nothing  better  is  known 
elsewhere.  In  this  art,  however,  many  iniportant  improve- 
ments have  been  made  within  a  few  years,  the  knowledge  of 
which  has  not  become  widely  diffused  among  American  calico- 
printers,  owing  to  the  fact  that  they  have  been,  for  the  most 
part,  published  in  a  foreign  tongue." 

And  to  supply  the  American  printers  with  this  information 
was  the  object  chiefly  of  Dr.  Shepard  in  translating  these 
recipes,  and  publishing  them  in  book-form.  He  claims 
nothing  more  for  it  than  its  being  a  hand  or  text  book  for  a 
practical  printer,  and  makes  no  pretence  to  fill  the  place  of 
8 


58  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

the  great  work  of  Persoz  on  calico-printing.  We  acknowledge 
onr  obligations  to  him  for  the  courtesy  extended  by  allowing 
it  to  be  embraced  in  this  work. 

MORDANTS. 

1.  PyroUgnite  of  Alumina,  at  11^  B. 
In  \\  gallons  of  Boiling  Water,  dissolve 

5  lbs.  of        Alum, 

4  lbs.  of        Brown  Sugar  of  Lead. 

Gives  16  lbs.  of  clear  Mordant,  at  11°  B. 

2.  Acetate  of  Alumina,  at  5°  B, 
In  11  pints  of  Boiling  Water,  dissolve 

4  lbs.  6  oz.  of        Alum, 

5  lbs.  13  oz.  of      White  Sugar  of  Lead. 
Gives  15^  lbs.  clear  Acetate,  at  8°  B. 

3.  Acetate  of  Alumina,  at  15°  B. 

4  lbs.  10  oz.  White  Sugar  of  Lead, 

5  lbs.  12  oz.  Alum.     Dissolve  in 
11  pints  Water. 

Gives  15^  lbs.  clear  Solution,  at  15°  B. 

4.  Keutral  Acetate  of  Alumina,  at  10'°  B. 
In  13  pints  of    Water,  dissolve 

A\  lbs.  Alum, 

(5  oz.  Soda  Crystals,  and 

3  lbs.  6  oz.  White  Sugar  of  Lead. 

Gives  17|  lbs.  clear  Mordant,  at  10°  B. 

5.  Iron  Liquor  Decoction,  for  Blade,  at  9°  B. 
7  lbs.  10  oz.  of  Iron  Liquor,  at  14°  B., 

14  lbs.  Pyroligneous  Acid,  at  2°  B., 

6  oz.  Arsenic, 

are  boiled  together  for  15  minutes. 


THE    AMEBIC  AX    DYEK.  59 

6.  Iron  Liquor  Decoction,  at  K'P  B. 
\0\  quarts  Iron  Liquor,  at  10^  B., 

2  quarts  Pyroligneous  Acid,  at  2^  B., 
2|  lbs.      Arsenic, 

23  lbs.       Saltpetre, 

are  boiled  together  for  half  an  hour. 

7 .  Acetate  of  Protoxide  of  Iron .  or  Standard  for  fast  Purple, 

at  10^  'B. 
In  7  quarts  of  Boiling  Water,  dissolve 
3  lbs.  9  oz.  Copperas,  and 
3  lbs.  9  oz.  White  Sugar  of  Lead. 
Gives  15  lbs.  clear  Standard,  at  10^  B. 

8.  Acetate  of  Protoxide  of  Iron,  or  Purple  Standard,  at 

11°  B. 
In  11  pint's  of       Boiling  Water,  dissolve 

3  lbs.  14  oz.  Copperas,  and 

2  lbs.  11  oz.  White  Sugar  of  Lead. 

When  dissolved,  add 

3  lbs.  14  oz.  Pyroligneous  Acid,  at  2^  B., 
Gives  17|  lbs.  Standard,  at  11-  B. 

9.  Xanl:een  Standard,  Xo.  1,  15'^  B. 

5  lbs.  6  oz.  Copperas, 

4  lbs.  2  oz.  White  Sugar  of  Lead,  dissolved  in 
\\  gallons  Boiling  Water, 

Gives  15|  lbs.  clear  Mordant,  at  15^  B. 

10.  Xanl'een  Standard,  Xo.  2. 

Q\  lbs.  Copperas, 

3    lbs.  3  oz.  Brown  Sugar  of  Lead, 
\\  gallons      Boiling  Water. 


60  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

11.  JVank-een  Standard,  No.  3,  25°  B. 

In  19  ll)s.  Nankeen  Standard,  No.  1,  dissolve 

2  lbs.  14  oz.  Copperas. 

12.  Orange  Standard,  or  Basic  Acetate  of  Lead,  50°  B. 

11  pints  of  Water, 
2|  lbs.        Litharge,  and 

4|  lbs.  White*  Sugar  of  Lead,  are  boiled  together 
to  complete  the  solution,  the  water  that  has 
evaporated  restored,  and  then 

3  lbs.   7  oz.  AVhite  Sugar  of  Lead  added  and  dis- 

solved. 
Gives  21  lbs.  clear  Orange  Standard,  at  50°  B. 

13.  Orange  Standard,  or  Basic  Acetate  of  Lead,  at  55°  B. 

5  quarts  of  Water, 

5^  lbs.  Sugar  of  Lead,  ' 

2  lbs.  10  oz.  Litharge,  are  boiled  together  until  com- 
plete solution  is  etfected.  Then  add  water  until 
the  desired  degree  is  attained. 

14.  Blue  Standard  for  Steam  Brown  or  Chocolate. 

7  lbs.      Yellow  Prussiate  of  Potash, 

10  oz.     Chlorate  Potash,  dissolved  in 

5  quarts  Water  (warm)  and  boiled  with 

2  lbs.       Oil  Vitriol  in  1    quart  of  water  until  the 

liquor  gives  no  blue  precipitate  with  a  solution 

of  per  salt  of  Iron. 

15.  Gray  Standard  for  Gray  A.  G. 
If  lbs.  ground  Logwood  stirred  into 

10  quarts  of  Boiling  Water  for  5  minutes,  then  passed 

through  a  fine  sieve, 
Give  15^  lbs.  clear  liquor. 


THE    AMERICAX   DYER.  61 

10  lbs.  2  oz.  of  this  dear  liquor  are  boiled  for  five 

minutes  with  a  solution  of 
I  ounce  of      Bichromate  of  Potash  in 
^  pint  of  Water,  and 

1^  ounces  of  Muriatic  Acid. 

16.  Sulphate  of  Chrome,  at  35^  B. 

Prepared  with  Molasses,  and  therefore  sometimes  called 
Sugar-Mordant. 
4  lbs.  6  oz.  Bichromate  Potash,  dissolved  in 

11  pints  of  hot  "Water;  add  gradually  a  mixture  of 
2|  lbs.  Oil  Vitriol,  and  3  pints  of  Water. 

Stir  well  and  immediately  add,  in  small  portions  at  a 

time, 
1  lb.  2  oz.  of  Molasses. 


PREPARATIONS. 

17.  Acetate  of  Chrome, 

\\  lbs.  of  Bichromate  of  Potash,  dissolved  in 

2  lbs.  Oil  Vitriol,  diluted  with  b\  quarts  Water. 

To  this  solution  add,  in  small  portions  at  a  time, 

I  lb.  Wheat  Starch.* 

When  the  action  is  over  and  the  liquid  cool,  add 

5  lbs.  11  oz.  White  Sugar  of  Lead. 
Let  settle,  and  use  the  clear  liquid. 

18.  ,  Acetate  of  Indigo. 

4  lbs.   11  oz.   of  Sulphate  of  Indigo,  at  60°  B.,  are 

decomposed  with  a  solution  of 
4  lbs.  11  oz.  Sugar  of  Lead  in  9^  pints  of  Water. 
Stir  well  and  mix  in 

6  oz.  Quicklime,  slacked  with  1  pint  of  Water. 
Gives  10|  lbs.  clear  solution,  at  13°  B.,  or  13^  lbs. 

clear  solution,  at  10°  B. 


62  THE    AMEEICAX   DYER. 

19.  BB.     Blue  Bath  for  Steam  Green. 
In    2  gallons  cf  hot  Water,  dissolve 

3  lbs.  of  yellow  Prnssiate  of  Potash, 
\  lb.  Tartaric  Acid,  and 

I  lb.  Oxalic  Acid. 

20.  Iron  Composition  for  Steam  Gray  C,Q. 

8  lbs.  6  oz.  Acetate  of  Iron  (protoxide),  at  10°  B., 
No.  7. 

II  lbs.  10  oz.  Nitrate  of  Iron,  at  50°  B.     Mix. 

21.  Muriate  of  Iron,  at  40°  B. 

4|  lbs.  Iron  Turnings  dissolved,  cold,  in 
15^  lbs.  ^Inriatic  Acid, 
Gives  12  lbs.  6  oz.  of  solution,  at  40°  B. 

22.  Oxidized  Loriwood  Liquor,  at  6°  B.,  for  Black. 

6  lbs.      Logwood  Liquor,  at  20°  B., 

7  quarts  "Water, 

3  oz.        ]Muriatic  Acid, 
Boiled  together  for  5  minutes. 

23.  Ammoniacal  Solution  of  CocJiineal. 
On    8  lbs.  of  Cochineal,  po<ir 

12  lbs.  Aqua  Ammonia. 
Cover  the  vessel  and  let  stand  in  a  moderately  warm  place 
one  or  two  days.  Then  extract  the  color  from  the  mass  M'ith 
hot  water,  until  the  water  is  no  longer  decidedl}^  red.  Boil 
down  the  extract  to  4°  B.  The  above  proportions  give  7  lbs. 
of  solution  of  Cochineal,  at  4°  B. 

24.  Oxide  of  Tin. 
In    4  quarts  of  AVatcr,  dissolve 

3  lbs.  Tin  Crystals  ;  to  this  solution  add 

4  lbs.  Soda  Crystals,  dissolved  in  4  quarts  of 

water.     Collect  the  precipitate  on  a  filter  and 
drain  well. 


THE    A3IEKICAX    DYER.  G3 

25.  Tartrate  of  Tin  and  Potash. 
1  11).  Tin  Crystals  dissolved  in 

5  quarts  of  AVatcr.     To  this  solution  add  a  solution  of 

1^-  lbs.  Soda    Crystals    in    5    quarts    of    Water. 

Collect  the  precipitate  on  a  tilter,  and  wash  it 
well,  and  then  dissolve  it  in  a  solution  com- 
posed of 

1  lb.  of  Cream  of  Tartar  in 

1  quart  of  Water. 

26.  Tin  Composition,  at  55^^  i?.,  for  Scarlet  S.  K. 

9    lbs.  Tin  Crystals,     ; 
4|  lbs.  Muriate  of  Tin,  at  50°  B.,  and 
2\  lbs.  White  Sugar  of  Lead  are  dissolved  in 
A\  pints  Water. 

The  clear  liquor  (after  standing  to  settle)  is  used  to 
brighten  Reds. 

27.  Tin  Composition  for  Orange  8. 
7|  lbs.  Muriate  of  Tin,  at  55°  B., 
3|  lbs.         Tin  Crystals,  added  to 

1\  pints  of  Water.     Then  dissolve  in  this, 
1  lb.  6  oz.  White  Sugar  of  Lead. 
Let  settle,  and  use  the  clear  liquor. 

28.  SajKin  Pigment. 
In  1  quart  of  Water,  dissolve 

4  oz.  Sapan  Liquor,  at  20°  B.     Add  to  this  gradually 

a  solution  of 
^  oz.  Alum, 

\  oz.  Bichromate  Potash  in 
1  quart  of  Water. 
Stir  well  and  let  the  precipitate  settle.     Pour   away  the 
supernatant  liquid,  and  wash  the  precipitate  several  times  with 
water.     Then  collect  it  on  a  muslin  strainer,  and  squeeze  dry. 


64  THE  america:n"  dyee. 

29.  Chrome  Orange  Pigment. 

1  lb.  14  oz.  White  Sugar  of  Lead  are  dissolved  in 
13  gallons  Water.     To  this  add  gradually  a  solution  of 
13  oz.  of  Bichromate  of  Potash  in 
13  gallons  of  Water. 

After  stirring  well,  let  the  yellow  precipitate  (Chromate  of 
Lead,  Pb  Cr  OJ  settle.  This  soon  takes  place.  Then  draw 
oflf  the  supernatant  liquor,  and  wash  it  (the  precipitate)  3  or 
4  times,  with  fresh  water  each  time. 

In  order  to  change  this  pigment  from  yellow  to  orange,  it 
must  be  boiled  in  lime-water  containing  1  ounce  of  lime  in  50 
gallons  of  water.  The  easiest  way  to  make  this  is  to  take  20 
gallons  of  water  which  has  stood  several  days  over  a  few 
pounds  of  lime,  and  thereby  has  become  saturated  with  it ; 
and  add  these  20  gallons  of  saturated  lime-water  to  30  gallons 
of  water. 

After  boiling  5  to  8  minutes,  the  yellow  color  of  the  pre- 
cipitate changes  to  orange.  It  is  then  left  to  settle,  and 
washed  as  before  with  fresh  water,  until  the  wash-water  ceases 
to  be  tinged  yellow  by  it.  It  is  then  drained  well  on  a  muslin 
strainer,  and  sqeezed  out.  The  orange  pigment  is  a  variable 
mixture  of  basic  chromate  of  lead  (2  Pb  O,  Cr  O3)  and  neu- 
tral chromate  of  lead  (Pb  O,  Cr  O3). 

30.  Nitrate  of  Iron,  50^  B. 
23r  lbs.  clean  Iron  Turnings  in 

20"lbs.  Nitric  Acid,  36°  B. 

t 

31.  Nitrate  of  Protoxide  of  Iron, 
In  7  pints  of  Boiling  Water,  dissolve 

^\  lbs.  Nitrate  of  Lead,  and  ^\  lbs.  green  Copperas. 
Gives,  after  straining,  9  lbs.  liquor,  at  32°  B. 


THE  a:mericax  DTEK.  f)5 


32.  Strafe  of  Zinc,  at  50'^  B. 
In  20  lbs.  Nitric  Acid,  at  36<^  B.,  dissolve 

3|^  lbs.  best  Lehigh  Spelter. 

When  dissolved,  bring  to  the  desired  degree  with 
water. 

33.  Mtrate  of  Alumina,  at  77°  B. 
In  5  quarts  of  hot  Water,  dissolve 

5  lbs.  Alum, 

2  oz.   Soda  Crystals, 

5  lbs.  Nitrate  of  Lead. 

Gives  12  lbs,  clear  liquor,  at  17°  B. 

34.  J^itrate  of  Alumina ^  at  18^  B. 
5  lbs.  Nitrate  of  Lead, 

5  lbs.  Alum,  dissolved  in 

5  quarts  of  Water. 

35.  Prussiate  of  Tin  for  Steam  Blue. 
11  lbs.  Tin  Crystals,  dissolved  in 

20  quarts  of  Water.     To  this  add  a  solution  of 
8|  lbs.  Yellow  Prussiate  in  20  quarts  of  Water. 
The  precipitate  (Prussiate  of  Tin,  SuoCfy)  is  to  be  washed 
several  times   by  decantation,   then    collected    on   a   muslin 
strainer,  and  well  drained. 

36.  Iron  Standard  for  3fode  Colors. 
14  lbs.  Iron  Liquor,  at  14°  B., 

4i  lbs.  lio;ht-colored  British  Gum. 

37.  ,  Sulphate  of  Indigo,  at  61°  B. 

4  lbs.  fine-ground  Indigo,  stirred  into  a  mixture  of 
8  lbs.  Nordhausen,  or  fuming  Oil  Vitriol,  and 
8  lbs.  Oil  Vitriol,  at  ^^"^ . 
Let  stand  for  several  days  in  a  warm  place. 

9 


t 

66»  THE   AMElilCAX   DYER. 

38.  Sulphate  of  Chrome,  at  50°  B. 

3  .lbs.  Bichromate  of  Potash, 

11^  pints  of  Water  are  boiled  to  a  paste  with 
1^  lbs.  Wheat  Starch,  and  to  this  is  added,  in  small 
portions  at  a  time,  a  mixture  of 

3  lbs.  Oil  Vitriol,  Qio'^,  and  1^  pints  of  Water.  The 
whole  is  then  to  be  cooked  in  an  enamelled  ves- 
sel so  long  as  any  escape  of  gas  takes  place. 

39.  Tin  Solution,  for  Brightening  Reds  and  Pinhs. 
Into  10  lbs.  Nitric  Acid,  at  36°  B.,  introduce 

10  lbs.  Tin  Crystals  in  very  small  portions  at  a  time, 
steadily  stirring. 

40.  Chloride  of  Soda,  5°  B. 

To  5  gallons  of  a  solution  of  Bleaching  Powder,  at  7° 
B.,  add 
7  lbs.  Soda  Crystals,  dissolved  in  5  quarts  of  water. 

Stir  well  and  let  settle. 
Gives  24  quarts  clear  Chloride  of  Soda. 

41.  Acetate  of  Alumina  A.,  for  Aniline  Carmine. 

3|  lbs.         Sulphate  Alumina, 
3^  quarts     Water  and 

4  lbs.  White  Suirar  of  Lead. 


42.  Alumina  Precipitate  for  Aniline  Colors. 

In  4  quarts  of  Water,  dissolve 
4  lbs  of  Alum,  then  add 
3  lbs.  Aqua  Ammonia  and 

2  quarts  of  Water. 
Collect  the  precipitate,  wash  and  strain. 


THE    AMEKICAJ^   DYEK.  G7 

43.  Pijrolignite  of  Cojij^er,  at  15'^  B. 

1  gallon  of  Water, 

4  lbs.         Blue  Vitriol  (Sulphate  of  Copper), 

3  lbs.  Browu  Sugar  of  Lead.  Let  settle,  and 
use  the  clear  liquid.  If  too  strong,  add  water 
to  bring  to  desired  degree. 

44.  Acetate  of  Coj^per,  at  20'^  B.^for  Steam  PurjAe. 

3  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol  dissolved  in 

3  quarts         "Water, 

2  lbs.  White  Sugar  of  Lead,  dissolved  in 

1  quart  of  AVater. 

Mix  the  two  solutions  and  let  settle. 

• 

45.  Acetate  of  Chrome,  at  16^  B. 
In    1  gallon  of  Water,  and 

12  lbs.  Acetic  Acid,  dissolve 

5  lbs.  White  Sugar  of  Lead  ;  then  add 
7  lbs.  Sulphate  of  Chrome,  at  42°  B. 
Let  settle,  and  use  the  clear  liquid. 

46.  Chrome  Alum. 

2  lbs.       Bichromate  Potash,  dissolved  with  heat  in 
5  quarts  Water. 

When  the  solution  is  cooled  down  to  104°  F.,add 

3  lbs.  Oil  Vitriol ;    stir  welH  and  let  cool  down  to 

77°  F.,  then  stir  in   1   pint  Alcohol,  and  set 
away  for  the  Chrome  Alum  to  crystallize  out. 

47.  Acetate  of  Protoxide  of  Iron,  at  20^  B. 
5    quarts  of  AVater, 

5    lbs.  Green  Copperas, 

71  lbs.  Susjar  of  Lead. 


68  THE    A3IERICAX   DYER. 

48.  Tin  Solution  for  Fast  Green. 

4  lbs.  Tin  Crystals,  dissolved  in 
2  lbs.  Muriatic  Acid,  at  22°  B. 

49.  Tin  Solution  for  Fast  Blue. 

10  lbs.  Tin  Crystals,  dissolved   in    10   lbs.  Muriatic 
Acid,  22°  B. 

50.  Oxidized  Sapan  Liquor,  for  Steam  Orange. 
3|  lbs.     Sapau  Liquor,  at  20°  B., 

5  pints    Water, 

1  ounce  Chlorate  Potash, 
i  ounce  Muriatic  Acid. 

51.  Orimson  Lake  for  Wool. 

8  lbs.  Cochineal,  cooked  with  5  or  6  pints  of  Water. 
To  the  decoction,  stir  gradually  and  constantly  in, 
a  solution  made  of 

2  quarts  of  Water, 

2  lbs  Tin  Crystals, 

2^  lbs.  Muriate  of  Tin. 

Let  settle,  draw  oif  the  supernatant  liquor,  wash  the  pre- 
cipitate well  with  water ;  collect  on  a  strainer,  and  let  drain 
well. 

52.  Indigo  Precipitate  for  Fast  Blue  and  Green. 
10  lbs.  Quicklime,  slacked  with 

Q\  galious  AVater  ;   then 

2  lbs.  ground   Indigo,  finely  rubbed  in  Water,  are 

well  stirred  in  ;  then  add 
6  lbs.  Copperas,  dissolved  in  5  gallons  of  Water; 

then  add 
5  gallons  hot  Water  and 
15  gallons  cold  Water. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  09 

Stir    well   from  time   to    time     until    the    liquid  has 
assumed  a  yellow  color,'  and  deep  ])lue  veins  or 
streaks  appear  upon    its  •  surface.      "\Micu  this 
moment  arrives,   draw  off  the  clear  liquor  and 
precipitate  every  10  quarts  of  it  with 
^  lb.  Tin  Crystals  dissolved  in  ^  lb.  Muriatic  Acid. 
To  the  remainder  of  the  mixture  of  Lime  and  Indigo,  15 
gallons  of  water  may  be  added,  and  the  whole  stirred,  and 
when  settled  the  Indigo  may  be  precipitated  from  the  clear 
liquor  as  before.     This  operation  may  be  repeated  a  second 
time  before  all  the  Indigo  is  exhausted. 

The    Indigo    precipitate    is  to  be    collected    on  a  muslin 
filter,  and  well  squeezed  out. 

53.  Chloride  of  Potash,  at  20"^  B. 

In  Q)\  lbs.  of  solution  of  Bleaching  Powder,  at  8°  B., 
1^  lbs.  of  Pearlash  is  to  be  dissolved. 
Let  settle,  and  use  the  clear  liquor. 

54.  Chloride  of  Soda,  at  9^  B. 

In  6^  lbs.  solution  Bleaching  Powder,  at  8^  B.,  dissolve 
1|  lbs.  Soda  Crystals. 

55.  Thickening,  or  British  Gum  Water. 

2  lbs.  light  colored  British  Gum,  dissolved  in 

1  quart  of  boiling  Water. 

56.  Gum  Water. 

2  lbs.     Gum  Arabic,  dissolved  in 

1  quart  boiling  Water. 

57.  Dextrine  Water. 

2  lbs.     Dextrine,  dissolved  in 
1  quart  boiling  Water. 


70  THE   AMEllICAX   DYeIi. 

58.  Leicome  Water. 
2  lbs.     Leicorae,  dissolved  in 

1  quart  boiling  Water. 

59.  Gum  Tragacanth  Mucilage. 

Ill  10  quarts  of  Water,  soak 

1  lb.  of        Gum  Tragacanth,  and  then  cook  it  well. 


BLACKS. 

Black  for  Block  Printing. 

13  lbs.  Iron  Liquor,  at  10°  B., 

b\  lbs.  Pyrolignite  Alumina,  at  8°  B., 

1\  oz.    Logwood  Liquor,  at  20°  B.,  to  be  cooked  with 

If  lbs.  Wheat  Starch. 

When  the  paste  is  made,  add 

3  oz.  Olive  Oil. 

Black  thickened  with  Gum. 
2  quarts  of  Water, 
b\  lbs.  Iron  Liquor,  at  14°  B., 

12^  oz.  Acetic  Acid  at  8°  B., 

14  oz.  Logwood  Liquor  at  20°  B., 
4^  lbs.  Gum  Arabic. 

Black  thickened  with  Starch  and  Flour. 
37  quarts  Iron  Liquor,  at  15°  B., 
43  quarts  Water, 

2  quarts  Logwood  Liquor,  at  2°  B., 

91  lbs.     Wheat  Starch, 

^  lbs.     Wheat  Flour, 

1^  pints  Olive  Oil. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  71 

Black  thickened  with  Starch. 
12|  lbs.    Prepared  Iron  Liquor,    ■ 
2^  pints  Wuter, 

18  oz.      Logwood  Liquor,  at  20°  B., 
2 1  lbs.    Wheat  Starch, 
2|  lbs.    British  Gum. 

Topical  Black  well  suited  for  raising  in  Alizarine. 
11  oz.  of        Starch, 
11  oz.  of        British  Gum, 

4  lbs.  6  oz.  Logwood  Liquor,  at  20°  B., 

1  lb.  Decoction  of  Galls,  20°  B., 
3|  lbs.          Iron  Liquor,  14°  B., 

2  lbs.  Acetic  Acid,  8°  B., 

1|  oz.  Yellow  Prussiate  of  Potash, 

1  oz.  Chlorate  of  Potash, 

are  well  cooked  together.  After  cooling,  and  immedi- 
ately before  using,  add  14  oz.  Nitrate  of  Iron,  at 
36°  B. 

Toincal   Black   suitable  for  raising  either  in  Alizarine  or 

Garancine. 

5  lbs.        Logwood  Liquor,  at  20°  B., 
5|  lbs.       Acetic  Acid,  at  8°  B., 

1|  lbs.        Starch, 

7|  lbs.       Iron  Liquor,  at  10°  B., 

1  lb.  3  oz.  Oil. 

Ihpical  Black. 
1  lb.  3  oz.  Logwood  Liquor,  at  20°  B., 
3^  lbs.         Wheat  Starch, 
15  pints  Water, 

I  lb.  Acetate  of  Iron,  10°  B., 

7  oz.  Acetate  Alumina,  15°  B., 

5  oz.  Lard. 


72  THE   AMEKICAX   DYEK. 


Sleam  Black. 

ISl  lbs. 

Oxidized  Logwood  Liquor,  6°  B., 

2"lbs. 

Wheat  Starch, 

2|  lbs. 

British  Gum, 

2  lbs. 

Red  Prussiate, 

10  oz. 

Prussiate  of  Tin, 

1  lb. 

Tartaric  Acid, 

1  oz. 

Nitrate  of  Iron,  at  50"  B. 

Steam  Blade. 
10  lbs.  Logwood  Liquor,  at  20°  B. , 

2\  lbs.  Acetate  Alumina,  10°  B., 

21  lbs.  Acetic  Acid,  8°  B., 

2  lbs.  6  oz.  Iron  Liquor,  14°  B., 
9  oz.  Oil,  thickened  with  b\  lbs.  Gum  Arabic. 

Steam  Black  tJiickened  with  Starch. 
91  lbs.  Logwood  Liquor,  at  20°  B., 

i\  lbs.  Acetate  Alumina,  10°  B., 

21  lbs.  Acetic  Acid,  8°  B., 

2  lbs.  6  oz.  Iron  Liquor,  14°  B., 
9  oz.  Oil,  cooked  with 

2|  lbs.  Wheat  Starch. 

Topical  Black. 

3^  lbs.  Flour, 

13^  lbs.  Logwood  Liquor,  6°  B., 

7  lbs.  6  oz.  Iron  Liquor,  14°  B., 
2\  lbs.  Acetic  Acid,  8°  B. 

Steam  Black. 

3  lbs.  2  oz.  Wheat  Starch, 

6^  lbs.  Acetio  Acid,  at  8°  B.,. 

5  lbs.  Logwood  Liquor,  20°  B., 

1  lb.  Yeiiow  Wood  (Fustic)  Liquor,  20°  B. 


THE  america:n^  dyer.  73 

Cook,  and  when  the  paste  is   made,  add,  in  small  por- 
tions at  a  time,  a  solution  made  of 
i  lb.  Bichromate  Potash, 

2'lbs.  10  oz.  Acetic  Acid,  8^  B.,  and 
11  lbs.  Muriatic  Acid. 

Stir  well,  and  thicken  the  color  with  an  addition  of 
2  lbs.  2  oz.  British  Gum. 

8team  Blade,  which  must  be  passed,  after  steaming,  tJirougli  a 
hath  of  Chrome,  to  develop  its  full  intensity. 


5  lbs. 

Logwood  Liquor,  at  20°  B., 

5^  lbs. 

Acetic  Acid,  8°  B., 

2  lbs.  3  oz. 

Wheat  Starch, 

fib. 

Leicome, 

1  quart 

Water, 

2  lbs.  9  oz. 

Aco-tate  Alumina,  11°  B., 

2  lbs.  9  oz. 

.  Iron  Liquor,  14°  B., 

5|  oz. 

Lard, 

b\  oz. 

Oil  of  Turpentine. 

Steam  Black  ichich  stands  Soaj^-bath. 
6  lbs.      British  Gum, 
8  lbs.      Logwood  Liquor,  at  10°  B.,' 
2^  pints  Water, 

1\  lbs.    Acetic  Acid,  at  8°  B.     Cook,  then  add 
8  lbs.       Acetate  of  Chrome,  17°  B., 
10|  oz.      Chlorate  Potash,  dissolved  in 
3  gills      Water. 

Aniline  Black,  with  Chloride  of  Aniline, 
In     3  lbs.   Starch  paste    (5    ounces   of   Starch  to   the   quart 
water), 
3  lbs.  Tragacanth  Mucilage  (3  oz.  Tragacanth  to  1  quart 

water) , 
3  lbs.  British  Gum  Water  (13  oz.  gum  to  1  quart  water), 
3  oz.     Chlorate  Potash  are  dissolved. 

10 


74  THE    AMERICiVN   DYER. 

When  the  mixture  is  cold,  dissolvte  in  it 
I  lb.  Chloride  of  Aniline,  and,  just  before  using,   add 
the  necessary 
2|  oz.   Sulphuret  of  Copper. 

Aniline  Black,  loHh  Oxalate  of  Aniline, 
3  lbs.   Starch  paste,  as  in  preceding, 
3  lbs.  Tragacanth  Mucilage,     do. 

3  oz.    British  Gum  Water,       do. 
2  oz.    Chlorate  Potash, 

4  oz.     Chloride  Calcium  (Muriate  Lime),  well  cooked. 

After  cooling,  add 
C  oz.     Oxalate  of  Aniline, 

I  oz.  Sal-Ammoniac, 
2  oz.    Sulphuret  of  Copper. 

Aniline  Black,  icith  Tartrate  of  Aniline. 
18  lbs.       Wheat  Starch, 
18  lbs.        British  Gum, 
12  gallons  Water, 
16  lbs.        Aniline  Oil, 

Chlorate  Potash, 

Sal-Ammoniac,   all   well  cooked  together,  and 
just  before  using,  add,  for  every  quart  of  the 
above  mixture, 
Sulphuret  Copper,  in  paste,  and 
Tartaric  Acid,  dissolved  in 
^  Water. 

[The  cloths  must  not  be  dried  with  great  heat.  It  is  better 
to  take  them  from  the  place  of  drying  a  little  damp  than  go 
to  the  other  extreme.  Their  oxidation  is  complete  in  24 
hours,  if  aerated  at  about  86°  F.  in  a  moist  atmosphere. 
They  may  be  cleansed  by  a  passage  in  hot  water,  rendered 
slightly  alkaline  with  Soda  Crystals,  and  the  cleansing  is 
completed  in  a  boiling  soap-bath.  s.  b.] 


10 

oz. 

10 

oz. 

2 

oz. 

5 

oz. 

2 

o-ills 

THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  75 

Aniline  Black,  with  Tungstate  of  Chrome. 
2  quarts  Water, 
9  oz.        "Wheat  Starch, 
13  oz.        Tungstate  of  Chrome,  in  fortn  of  paste.     This 
is  made  by  precipitating  Chloride  of  Chrome 
with  Tungstate  of  Ammonia. 
To  the  above  mixture,  while  still  lukewarm,  add 

2  oz.         Chlorate  Potash, 
1  oz.         Sal-Ammoniac, 

\  lb.       Chloride  of  Aniline. 

Aniline  Black,  with  Tungstate  of  Chrome. 

No.  1. 

4  kilos.  Wheat  Starch, 
22  litres   Water, 

5  kilos.  Tungstate  of  Chrome. 
Cook  half  an  hour,  and  add 

4  kilos.  500  gr.  British  Gum, 
1  kilo.  100  gr.  Chlorate  Potash, 
550  gr.  Sal-Ammoniac. 

No.  2. 

1  kilo.  500  gr.  Wheat  Starch, 
8  litres  Water, 

3  kilos.  Chloride  of  Aniline. 

At  time  of  application,  stir  No.  2  into  No.  1,  while  cold. 
(French  Receipts.)  s.  b. 

N.  B.  The  usual  proportions  are  2  parts  No.  1,  to  1  part 
No.  2.  Oxidize  the  printed  cloth  at  86°  Fahr.,  with 
very  little  humidity.     Afterwards  steam  \  hour. 

8ulphuret  of  Copper  in  Paste,  for  Aniline  Black. 
In  12  lbs.  Solution  of  Caustic  Soda,  at  38°  B., 

2  lbs.  3  oz.  Flour  of  Sulphur  are  dissolved  by  means  of 


76  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

heat.     When  the  sohitiou  is  complete,  add  to  the 

liquor 
lOi  lbs.  Blii^  Vitriol,  dissolved  in 
20  gallons  Water.     Stir  well,  and  filter. 
The  precipitate  is  well  washed  on  the  tilter,  and  employed 

in  the  form  of  a  paste. 

Steam  Black  for  Half-  Wool. 
14  oz.  Wheat  Starch  and 

4  lbs.  6  oz.  Leicome  are  well  cooked  in 
1  lb.  Indigo  paste, 

7|  lbs.  Logwood  Liquor,  20°  B., 

7|  lbs.  Pyrolignite  of  Iron. 

Steam  Black  for  Half-  Wool. 

5  lbs.  Leicome, 

5^  lbs.  Logwood  Liquor,  20°  B., 

4  lbs.  10  oz.  Iron  Liquor,  14°  B., 
1  lb.  Pyroligneous  Acid, 

14  oz.  Indigo  paste,  and 

3  lbs.  5  oz.    Quercitron  Liquor,  20  B., 

are  cooked  together,  and  to  the  mixture,  wheu  cold,  is 

added 
U  lbs.  Nitrate  Iron,  at  20°  B.,  and 

5  oz.  Chlorate  of  Potash. 

Steam  Black  for  Wool. 

4  lbs.    Leicome, 

7  lbs.    Logwood  Liquor,  at  20°  B., 
1^  lbs.  Indigo  paste, 
2^  lbs.  Copperas, 
5^  lbs.  Acetic  Acid. 

Steam  Black  for  Wool, 
I  lbs.  Wheat  Starch, 

8 1  lbs.  Iron  Liquor,  14°  B., 


THE    AMERICAN   DYEK.  77 

3  lbs.  3  oz.  Archil  Extract,  10°  B., 

I  lbs.  Quercitron  Liquor,  20°  B., 

I  lbs.  Indigo  paste,  x 

4  lbs.  6  oz.  Logwood  Liquor,  20°  B., 
3^  lbs.  Leicome. 


CHOCOLATES. 

The  Brown  Colors  derived  from  Madder,  which  are  gener- 
ally called  Chocolates  in  the  Print-Works,  depend  for  their 
depth  of  tone,  which  is  developed  in  the  raising,  on  a  variable 
mixture  of  Acetate  of  Alumina  and  Pyrolignite  of  Iron  ;  on 
the  thickening  and  dyeing. 

The  mixtures  are  designated  by  numbers,  as  1,  6,  30,  and 
so  on  ;  and  these  numbers  si^iify  how  many  parts  of  Acetate 
of  Alumina  are  to  be  used  with  one  part  of  Iron  Liquor,  to 
produce  the  shade  desired  ;  thus,  8°  Chocolate  1,  signifies  that 
one  part  of  Acetate  of  Alumina  at  8°  is  to  be  used  with  one 
part  of  Iron  Liquor  at  8°  ;  8°  Chocolate  6,  signifies  that  six 
parts  of  Acetate  Alumina  at  8°  is  to  be  used  with  one  part  of 
Iron  Liquor  at  the  same  degree  ;  and  so  on. 

A  convenient  formula  for  all  shades  of  Chocolate  is  as 
follows  :  -In  this  formula^n  signifies,  as  in  the  preceding  para- 
graph, how  many  parts  of  Acetate  of  Alumina  are  to  be  used 
with  one  part  of  Iron  Liquor. 

^  lbs.  Acetate  of  Alumina,  at  X°  B., 

-j^  lbs.  Iron  Liquor,  at  X°  B., 

2\  lbs.  British  Gum, 

2^^  lbs.  AVheat  Starch, 

11  oz.   Logwood  Extract,  at  20°  B., 

2\  oz.   Oil  of  Turpentine. 

8°  CJiocolate  1. 
1\  lbs.  Acetate  of  Alumina,  at  8°  B., 
1\  lbs.  Iron  Liquor,  at  8°  B., 


78  THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 

2^  lbs.  British  Gum, 

2\  lbs.  Wheat  8laich, 

1^  oz.   Logwood  Liquor,  20°  B., 

2|  oz.   Oil  of  Turpentine. 

This  gives  rather  a  dark  Chocolate. 

5°  Chocolate  6. 
12    lbs.  Acetate  Alumina,  at  8°  B., 
2    lbs.  Iron  Liquor,  at  8°  B., 
2|  lbs.  British  Gum, 
2\  lbs.  Wheat  Starch, 
\\  oz.   Logwood  Liquor,  20°  B., 
2^  oz.   Oil  of  Turpentine. 
This  is  a  lighter  Chocolate. 

,5°  ChocoMe  30. 
15    lbs.  Acetate  Alumina,  at  8°  B;, 
\  lb.    Iron  Liquor,  at  8°  B., 
2^  lbs.  British  Gum, 
2^  lbs.  Wheat  Starch, 
1^  oz.   Logwood  Liquor,  at  20°  B., 
2^  oz.    Oil  of  Turpentine. 
This  gives  a  very  light  Chocolate. 

Steam  Chocolate  on  unprepared  Cotton. 
1\  lbs.     •       Steam  Chocolate  Preparation,  No.  1, 
1\  lbs.  Persian  Berries, 

1\  lbs.  Logwood  Liquor,  at  7°  B., 

A:\  oz.  Sulphate  of  Copper, 

2  lbs.  3  oz.  Gum  Senegal. 

Steam  Chocolate  Preparation^  JSFo.  1. 
23  lbs.  Brazil-wood  Liquor  (Sapau  or  Lima),    * 

2f  lbs.  Alum, 

2  lbs.  3  oz.  Sugar  of  Lead.      Let  settle,  and   use    the 
clear  liquor. 


i>2 

oz.   Mu 

aS/6< 

15f 

lbs. 

3| 

lbs. 

1? 

fiillon 

^\ 

lbs. 

H 

lbs. 

4  lbs.  6  oz 

THE    AMEKIC-^S^'   DYEK.  <  U 

Steam  Chocolate  on  wnprepared  Cotton. 
25  lbs.     Steam  Chocolate  Preparation,  No.  2, 
3\  lbs.  Starch, 
5^  oz.   Chlorate  Potash, 
Muriatic  Acid. 

Steam  Chocolate  Preparation,  J^o.  2. 
Sapan  Liquor,  at  9°  B., 
Quercitron  Liquor,  8^  B., 
Water, 

Logwood  Liquor,  4^  B., 
Sulphate  Alumina, 
Brown  Sugar  of  Lead. 

Steam  Chocolate  on  Goods  p>^€pared  icith  Stannate  of  Soda. 
4J  lbs.  Wheat  Starch, 
5  pints  AVater, 
10  lbs.    Logwood  Liquor,  10^  B., 
5^  lbs.  Caustic  Soda  Lye,  at  10°  B., 
are  well  cooked  together.     When  cooled,  add 
3  oz.   Red  Prussiate  Potash. 

Steam  Chocolate  on  prepared  Goods. 
4|  lbs.  Oxidized  Logwood  Liquor, 

7  lbs.  Oxidized  Brazil-wood  Liquor, 

2  lbs.  9  oz.  Quercitron  Liquor,  20°  B., 
21  lbs.  Nitrate  Alumina,  17°  B., 

1^-  lbs.  Steam  Chocolate  Preparation,  No.  3, 

1|  lbs.  Wheat  Starch, 

^  lb.  Leicome,  and 

2^  oz.  Alum,  are  well  cooked  together. 

*  Oxidhed  Logicood  Liquor. 

4|  lbs.  Logwood  Liquor,  at  10°  B., 
1^  oz.    Chlorate  Potash, 
\  oz.      Muriatic  Acid.     Cook  5  minutes. 


80  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

Oxidized  Brazil-wood  Liquor. 
7  lbs.  Sapan  or  Lima-wood  Liquor,  at  8°  B., 
2\  oz.  Chlorate  Potash, 
\  oz.    Muriatic  Acid.     Cook  5  minutes. 

Steam  Chocolate  Preparation,  JSfo,  3. 
In  6|  lbs.  Sapan  Liquor,  at  3°  B., 

1  lb.  10  oz.  Quercitron  Liquor,  5°  B.,  dissolve 
3^  oz.  Alum, 

3^  oz.  Sugar  of  Lead, 

1  oz.     '         Sal-Ammoniac.     Use  the  clear  liquor  after 
settling. 

Steam  Chocolate  on  x>repared  Goods. 

3|  pints  Water, 

4  lbs.  Acetate  Alumina,  15°  B., 

4.\  lbs.  Logwood  Liquor,  20°  B., 

1  lb.  Sta'rch, 

4^  lbs.  British  Gum  are  cooked  together.     Then 

dissolve  in  it 
6  oz.  Sal-Ammoniac, 

2  oz.  Oxalic  Acid.     When  quite  cold,  add 

3  lbs.   14  oz.   Steam   Bhie   Preparation  for  Chocolates. 

See  No.  14,  Mordants. 

Steam  Chocolate  for  Goods  prepared  or  unprepared. 
2  lbs.    Logwood  Liquor,  at  10°  B., 
1|  lbs.  Sapan  Liquor,  10°  B., 
fib.      Quercitron  Liquor,  1-0°  B., 
1|  lbs.  Acetate  Alumina,  11°  B., 

1  lb.      Wheat  Starch, 

2  lbs.    Tragacanth    Mucilage  (2    oz.    Tragacanth  to    1 

quart  water).     Cook  together,  and,  when  cold, 
add 
4^-  oz.    Acetate  Copper,  18°  B. 


THE    AMEKIC^i>s^   DYER.  81 

Steam  Chocolate. 

4  lbs.    Brazil-wood  Liquor,  20°  B., 

11-  lbs.  Yellow  AVood   (Cub:i)   Liquor,   20<^  B.   (Fustic 
Liquor), 

6  lbs.    Acetate  Chrome,  16°  B., 

7  pints  Water,  cooked  Avith 
1  lb.      Starch, 

\  lb.      British  Gum. 

Chocolate  to  be  passed  through  a  Chrome  Bath. 

8  lbs.    Sapan  Liquor,  20°  B., 

2>\  lbs.  Yellow  Wood  Liquor,  20°  B.  (Fustic  Liquor) , 
3i  lbs.  Acetate  Alumina,  11°  B.,  and 

5  lbs.    Gum  Arabic. 

Steam  Chocolate  on  Wool. 
2\  lbs.  Wheat  Starch, 
5  pints  Water, 
12  lbs.    Archil  Extract,  10°  B., 
6\  oz.   Indigo  Paste, 
\  lb.      Alum. 

Steam  Chocolate  on  Wool. 
121  lbs.  Archil  Extract,  10°  B., 

\  lb.  Wheat  Starch, 

\^  lbs.  British  Gum, 

I  lb.  14  oz.  Indigo  Paste, 

II  oz.  Alum, 

1^  lbs.  Logwood  Liquor,  at  20°  B., 

1|  lbs.  Yellow    Wood     Liquor,    20°     B.     (Fustic 

Liquor) . 

Steatn  Chocolate  on  Wool, 
15  lbs.  Archil  Extract,  12°  B., 
4  lbs.  Leicome, 
11  oz.    Indigo  Paste, 
\  lb.    Alum. 
11 


82  TilE   AMERICAN   DYEll. 


REDS. 

The  following  Reds  may  be  raised  iu  the  same  beck  with 
Roses,  or  by  themselves  alone,  either  with  Madder  or  Flow- 
ers, soaped  and  brightened. 

Dee}}  Red  for  Cotton  Goods. 

2  lbs.         Wheat  Starch, 

25    lbs.         Red  Preparation  (see  next  below), 
3|-  ounces    Logwood. Liquor,  20°  B., 
3|-  ounces    Olive  Oil,  cooked  well  together. 

Red  Pre;paration. 

21    pints  Water, 

6    lbs.  5  oz.  Sugar  of  Lead, 

6  lbs.  5  oz.  Alum, 

l|'lbs.  Pyroligneous  Acid,  2°  B., 

3  lbs.  5  oz.  Nitrate  Zinc,  40°  B. 

Deep  Red. 

7  lbs.  Acetate  Alumina,  at  11°  B., 
1^  lbs.  Starch, 

4  ounces  Sapan  Liquor,  20°  B., 
2    lbs.  6  oz.  Nitrate  Zinc,  15°  B., 

1  ounce         Olive  Oil,  cooked  well  together. 

Standard  JSfo.  l^for  Resist  Red. 

2  lbs.         Wheat  Starch, 

25    lbs.         Red  Preparation  (see  above), 
14    ounces    Quercitron  Liquor,  20°  B., 
3|  ounces    Olive  Oil. 


THE    .OIEIUCAX    DYEE.  83 

Jlesist  lied,  ^*. 
1  quart  of  Standarcl  No.  1,  sharpuned  with 
h  ounce       Tin  Crystals, 
^  ounce       Acetic  Acid,  8^  B. 

Resist  lied,  2. 

1  quart  of  Standard  Xo.  1, 

2  ounces     Tin  Crystals, 

2  ounces     Acetic  Acid,  8°  B. 

liesist  Bed,  4. 
1  quart  of  Standard  No.  1, 
4  ounces     Tin  Crystals, 
4  ounces     Acetic  Acid,  8^  B. 

Standard  Xo.  2,  for  liesist  Beds  thickened  with  British  Gum. 
4f  Ihs.  Pyrolignite  Alumina,  11^  B., 

31^  ounces        Nitrate  Zinc,  20°  B., 
3f  ounces        Brazil  wood  Liquor,  20==^  B., 

1  ounce         Oil  Turpentine, 

2  lbs.  3  oz.  British  Gum. 

Bed  without  uVitrafe  of  Zinc. 
18^  lbs.  Pyrolignite  Alumiua,  11^  B., 

3  lbs.  2  oz.  AVhcat  Starch, 

10  oz.  Brazil-wood  Liquor,  20^^  B. 

Steayn  Bed  JVb.  1,  on  prepared  Cotton. 
9  lbs.  10  oz.  Sa^wn  Liquor,  20^  B., 
\\  lbs.  Quercitron  Liquor,  20^  B., 

10  oz.  Red  Trussiate  Potash, 

1  gallon  Gum  Water,  1  lb.  to  the  quart, 

\  lb.  Acetate  Alumina,  at  15°  B. 

*  The  figures  following  the  words  "Resist  Kc.l,"  signify  the  nuniher  of 
ounces  of  Tin  Crystals  and  Acetic  Acid  to  be  added  to  one  quart  of  the 
Standard. 


84  THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 

Steam- Scarlet  Red  on  prepared  Goods. 

16\  lbs.  Cochineal  Extract,  14P  B., 

]5  oz.  Quercitron  Extract,  20°  B., 

2  lbs.  6  oz.  Wheat  Starch.     Cook. 

When  cold,  add 
13  oz.  Salts  Sorrel  (Binoxalate  Potash), 

1  lb.  9  oz.    Tin  Composition  for  Scarlet,  No.  26  Prepa- 
ration. 


Steam  Red  JSfo.  2,  on  prepared  Goods. 

\\  pints  Water, 

5  lbs.  10  oz.  Acetate  Alumina,  15°  B., 

5  lbs.  Sapan  Liquor,  20°  B., 

5^  lbs.  British  Gum, 

5|  oz.  Sal-Ammoniac, 

2^  oz.  Oxalic  Acid, 

4  lbs.  Blue  Standard,  No.  14  Mordant. 


Steam  Red  on  prepared  Cotton. 

11  lbs.  Sapan  Extract,  14°  B., 

1  lb.  2  oz.    Persian  Berry  decoction,  7°  B., 

1  lb.  10  oz.  Sulphate  Alumina, 

2  oz.  Chlorate  Potash, 
^\  lbs.  Gum  Arabic. 

Steam  Scarlet  on  Wool. 

11  lbs.      Cochineal  Lake, 
2  quarts  Water, 
5^  lbs.     Gum  Arabic, 

9  oz.        Salts  Sorrel.     Cook,  and,  when  cold,  add 
9  oz.       Oxalic  Acid. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  85 


PINKS. 

These  colors  are  raised  in  Madder  or  Flowers,  and  are 
made  with  a  solution  of  Pyrolignite  or  Acetate  of  .Vhnniiia, 
thickened  with  British  Gum. 

Pink  4. 
1  lb.    P^'rolignitc  Ahimina,  at  11°  B., 
4  lbs.  British  Gum  SoUition  for  Roses. 

Pijik  20. 

1  lb.    Pyrolignite  Alumina,  11°  B., 
20  lbs.  British  Gum  Solution  for  Roses. 

British  Gum  Solution  for  Poses. 
9  lbs.  3  oz.  British  Gum, 
11  pints  "Water, 

11  lbs.  Nitrate  of  Zinc,  50°  B. 

Steam  Pose  on  Prepared  Cotton. 
11  lbs.  13  oz.  Cochineal  Decoction,  5°  B., 
3  lbs.    3  oz.  Acetate  Alumina,  15°  B., 
.    1^  lbs.  Solution  Tartaric  Acid,  20°  B., 

3^  lbs.  Powdered  Gum  Arabic. 

The  same  may  be  thickened  with  H  lbs.  Wheat  Starch 
in  place  of  the  Gum  Arabic. 

Steam  Pinks. 
Steam  Reds  No.  .1  and  No.  2  may  be  diluted  with  Gum 
Water;  1   part  of  Red  to  4  parts  Gum   Water  to  produce 
Pinks. 

Topical  Pose  on  Cotton. 
3  lbs.  Tragacanth  Mucilage  (1^  oz.  to  the  quart), 

2  quarts       Water, 

4]^-  lbs.        Sapan  Liquor,  10°  B.,. 


86  THE    AMERICA:^   DYEK. 

1  lb.  5  oz.  Acetic  Acid,  8^  B., 
17^  oz.  Pink  Salts, 

2  oz.  Chloride  of  Copper,  40°  B. 

Topical  Rose  on  Cotton. 
4  quarts       "Water, 
9^  lbs.  Sapaii  Liquor,  10°  B., 

11  lbs.  Tragacanth  Mucilage, 

3  lbs.  6  oz.  Sal-Ammoniac, 

3^  lbs.  Muriate  Tin,  55°  B., 

11  oz.  Nitrate  Copper,  55°  B. 

Steam  Rose  on  prepared  Cotton. 
'4  lbs.  2  oz.  Cochineal  Decoction,  8°  B., 
2i-  pints        Water, 

4  oz.  Alum, 

2  oz.  Cream  Tartar, 

1  oz.  Oxalic  Acid. 

2  lbs.  10  oz.  Gum  Arabic. 

Steam  Aniline  Rose  on  Cotton. 
^\  oz.      Fuchsine  in  Crystals.     Dissolve  in 

1  pint      Alcohol.     Stir  in 

17  oz.         Tragacanth  Mucilage,  and  add  finally 
12^   lbs.    Solution   Blood   Albumen    (21    ounces    to    the 
quart) . 

Dark  Aniline  Rose  on  unprepared  Cotton. 

2  lbs.    Fuchsine  Carmine, 
14^  lbs.  Acetate  Alumina, 
17^  lbs.  Gum  Water. 

Aniline  Rose  on  imjjrepared  Cotton. 

3  lbs.  Wheat  Starch, 

4  quarts       Water, 

7^  lbs.  Acetate    Alumina,    well    cooked     together. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  87 

Then  add  a  mixture  of 
4  lbs.  6  oz.  Fuchsiiie  Carmiue, 
4  lbs.  6  oz.  Acetate  Alumina. 

Aniline  Rose. 

4  oz.      Fuchsine  in  Crystals, 
1  quart  Water, 

1  quart  Glycerine.     Cook  15  minutes. 
Thicken  with  \\  lbs.  Gum  Arabic. 
"When  completely  cold,  add 

14  lbs.  Albumen  Solution  (2  lbs.  Egg  Albumen  to  1  quart 
Water). 

Aniline  Rose. 

5  lbs.  Solution  Fuchsine  in  Alcohol,  No.  1, 

8  lbs.  Gum  Water. 

Heat,  until  3  lbs.  are  steamed  away.     When  completely 

cold,  add 
5  lbs.  Albumen  Solution  (2  lbs.  Egg  Albumen  to  1  quart 

Water) . 

Fuchsine  Rose, 

2  lbs.  Solution  of  Caseine, 

\  lb.    Fuchsine  Solution  in  Alcohol,  No.  1. 

Caseine  Solution. 

2  lbs.      Caseine, 

3  quarts  Water, 

6^  oz.     Liquid  Ammonia. 

Coralline  Rose. 
)f  lb.      Coralline.     Dissolve  in 
'2.\  pints  Alcohol,  and  thicken  with 

9  lbs.       Caseine  Solution. 

Rose  on  Wool. 
9^  lbs.  Scarlet  Lake, 
9^  lbs.  Gum  Water, 
1  lb.      Oxalic  Acid. 


88  THE    AMEPJCAX   DYEK. 

Aniline  Hose  on  Wool. 
6  lbs.  Fuchsine  Solution,  No.  2,  thickened  with 
10  lbs.  Gum  Water. 

Fuchsine  Solution,  No.  1. 
Z\  oz.      Fuchsine  dissolved  with  heat  in 
4  quarts  Alcohol. 

Fuchsine  Solution,  No.  2. 

1  lb.    Fuchsine  in  Crystals,  dissolved  in 
8  lbs.  Acetic  Acid,  8°  B. 

Caseine  Solution. 

2  lbs.      Caseine  powdered, 
2\  oz.      Calcined  Magnesia, 
1  gallon  Water. 

Stir  the  Caseine  and  Magnesia,  each  by  itself,  in  a  little  of 
the  Water.  Then  mix  both  with  the  rest  of  the  Water. 
Stir  till  it  thickens,  and  let  rest  over  night. 

Then  add  a  solution  of  10  ounces  crystallized  Baryta 
hydrate  in  3  quarts  of  warm  Water  at  not  over  95^  Fahr. 

This  will  form  a  gum-like- solution,  having  the  properties  of 
Egg  Albumen,  at  a  moderate  price.  The  cost  for  materials 
in  France  is  about  50  cents  per  gallon. 


PURPLES. 


Purples  are  formed  by  mixtures  of  Acetate  of  Iron  and  solu- 
tion of  British  Gum,  cooked  together.  The  shades  are  darker 
when  Wheat  Starch  is  used  in  place  of  British  Gum.  The 
figure  which  follows  the  word  Purple,  signifies  hew  many 
pounds  of  British  Gum  Solution  are  to  be  used  for  one  pound 
of  Acetate  of  Iron.     Thus 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  89 

Purple  8. 
Consists  of  1  lb.    Acetate  of  Iron,  at  11"^  B., 
8  lbs.  Solution  British  Gum. 

Puiyle  40. 

1  lb.    Acetate  of  Iron,  at  11°  B., 
40  lbs.  British  Gum  Solution. 

Purple  for  Hair  Lines. 

2  lbs.  7  oz.  Acetate  of  Iron,  10°  B., 
5f  lbs.  Gum  Arabic, 

2\  lbs.  Pyroligneous  Acid,  2°  B., 

11  pints  Water, 

2  oz.  Logwood  Liquor,  20°  B. 

Steam  Purple  on  Cotton  prepared  with  Stannate  of  Soda. 

9  lbs.  6  oz.  Logwood  Liquor,  2^°  B., 

4^  oz.  Sal-Ammoniac, 

1  lb.  2  oz.  Lemon  Juice,  27°  B., 

16  lbs.  Gum  Water, 

101  oz.  Oxide  of  Tin  {vide  No.  24), 

5^  oz.  Nitrate  Copper,  55°  B. 

Steam  Purple  on  prep)ared  Cotton. 
5|  lbs.         Logwood  Liquor,  4°  B., 
\\  oz.  Lemon  Juice,  27°  B., 

4^  oz.  Red  Prussiate  Potash, 

1  lb.  5  oz.  Gum  Arabic. 

Steam  Puiple  on  unprejjared  Cotton. 
3^  ros.  Standard  R.   (see  next  page), 

2  lbs.  14  oz.  Gum  Water, 

1  lb.  3  oz.       Acetate  Alumina,  12°  B. 

12 


90  THE  a:\iehicax  dter. 

S(a7idard  R. 

5  lbs.  Steam  Purple  Preparation  (see  below), 
2  lbs.  Gum  Arabic, 

1\  oz.  Acetate  Copper,  20"  B. 

Steam  Purple  Prejmration. 
4|  lbs.  Acetate  Alumina,  12^  B., 
17V  t)Z.    Ground  Logwood, 
^\  oz.    Logwood  Liquor,  20^  B., 
Heat  to  190-  F.     L"se  the  clear  liquor. 

Topical  PuipJe  on  Cotton. 
2  lbs.      Logwood  Liquor,  6^  B., 

2  quarts  Water, 

6  lbs.       Gum  Water  (1^  lbs.  to  the  quart), 
9  oz.        Sal-Ammouiac, 

3  oz.        Alum, 

\\  oz.      Oxalic  Acid, 

\\  oz.      Nitrate  Copper,  8^  B., 

f  lb.        Muriate  Tin,  60"  B. 


Topical  Purple. 

10  lbs. 

Logwood  Liquor,  5^  B., 

13  oz. 

Sal-Ammoniac, 

5|  oz. 

Sulphate  Copper, 

3^  oz. 

Oxalic  Acid, 

2"lbs.  6  oz, 

.  Pink  Salts, 

6^  lbs. 

Gum  Water. 

Steam  Aniline  Purple  on  Cotton. 

11  oz.    Aniline  Purple  (Paris  Purple,  Dahlia)^are  dis- 
solved in 
2  pints  Alcohol,  and  then  Gum  Water  added.     The  mix- 


THE    AMEKICAN   DYEIl.  91 

ture  is  now  heated  until  1  pint  is  steamed  off. 
Let  cool.  When  fully  cold,  add  10  lbs.  Albu- 
men Solution  (2  lbs.  Egg  Albumen  or  1  lb. 
Blood  Albumen  to  the  quart  of  Water). 

Steam  Aniline  Purple  on  prepared  CoUon. 
1|  lbs.    Aniline  Purple  in  paste, 
11  lbs.      Acetic  Acid,  8°  B., 
3^  oz.      Tannin, 
1^  lbs.     Wheat  Starch, 
3  quarts  Water. 

Steam.  Purple  on  unprepared  Cotton. 

2  lbs.  Purple  Carmine  (of  R.  Knosp  in  Stutgard), 
6  lbs.  Acetate  Alumina,  at  8°  B., 

8  lbs.  Gum  Water  (2  lbs.  to  the  quart). 

Steam  Aniline  Purple. 
2|  lbs.      Wheat  Starch, 
4|^  quarts  Water, 
6  lbs.         Acetate  Alumina,  A., 

3  lbs.         Aniline  Purple  Carmine, 
2  lbs.        Acetic  Acid. 

Aniline  Purple  on  Wool. 

1  lb.  13  oz.  Aniline  Purple  in  paste, 

2  pints  Alcohol, 

14  lbs.  Gum  Water, 

1  quart  Water. 

Aniline  Purple  on  Wool. 
2|  oz.  Aniline  Purple  (Paris  Purple,  Dahlia), 
8  lbs.    Acetic  Acid,  8°  B.     Dissolve  with  warming,  and 
thicken  with  10  lbs.  Gum  Water. 


92  THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 

BLUES. 

Fast  Blue  on  Cotton. 
10\  oz.  fine-ground  Indigo,  rubbed  up  with 

1  lb.  3  oz.      Caustic  Soda  Sohition,  20^  B.,  and  added  to 
4  lbs.  13  oz.  Caustic  Soda  Solution,  20°  B.,  and 

11  oz.  Red  Sulphuret  Arsenic  (Realgar). 

Cook  the  whole  V  hour,  and  thicken  with 

2  lbs.  Gum  Arabic. 

Fast  Blue  on  Cotton. 
9  lbs.  2  oz.  Indigo  Precipitate,  No.  52, 
1\  lbs.  Nitrate  Protoxide  of  Iron,  32°  B., 

11^  lbs.  Gum  Water  (2  lbs.  Gum  Arabic  to  1  quart 

Water). 

Fast  Blue  on  Cotton. 
4  lbs.    Indigo  Precipitate,  No.  52. 

6  lbs.    British  Gum  Water  (2  lbs.  B.  Gum  to  1  quart 

Water) , 
41  lbs.  Nitrate  Protoxide  Iron,  14°  B. 
The  Nitrate  of  Iron  may  be  replaced  by  4|  lbs.  Chloride 
of  Iron,  at  28°  B. 

Fast  Blue  on  Cotton. 
24  lbs.  Indigo  Precipitate, 

8  lbs.  Nitrate  Protoxide  Iron,  32°  B., 
24  lbs.  Gum  Water. 

Steam  Blue  on  prepared  Cotton  Goods. 
4  quarts       Water, 

2  lbs.  Starch.     Cook  to  a  paste,  and  add 

2\  lbs.  Yellow  Prussiate, 

13|  oz.  Tartaric  Acid, 

7  oz.  Sal-Ammoniac, 
4  lbs.  3  oz,  Prussiate  Tin. 


THE    AMERICAi?^    I>YETl.  93 

Steam  Blue  on  prepared  Goods. 
9  pints         boiling  "Water, 
1  lb.  Sal-Aramoniac, 

1  lb.  6.  oz.  Yellow  Prussiate  Potash, 
10|  oz.  Red  Prnssiate  Potash, 

4  lbs.  2  oz.  Prussiate  Tin, 

5  lbs.  Gum  Arabic. 

Steam  Blue  on  prepared  Goods. 
1|  lbs.     Starch,  cooked  with  9  pints  water ;  add 
1|  lbs.     Yellow  Prussiate.     In  another  vessel  dissolve 
1|  lbs.     Tartaric  Acid  and  3  oz.  Oxalic  Acid  in 
11  pints  Water,  and  mix  the  two.     Finally,  add  to  the 

mixture 
4  lbs.       Prussiate  Tin, 

11  oz.        Brazil-wood  Liquor,  6°  B., 
\  oz.      Oil  Vitriol. 

Steam  Blue  on  prepared  Goods,  ivithout  Tartaric  Acid. 

2  quarts      Water,  cooked  with  1  lb.  6  oz.  Starch, 
4|  oz.  Alum, 

2^  oz.  Oxalic  Acid, 

17^^  oz.  Prussiate  Tin, 

2  lbs.  3  oz.  Yellow  Prussiate, 

17|  oz.  Glauber  Salts.     When  completely  cold  add 

13  oz.  Oil  Vitriol,  66°,  in 

1^  pints  Water. 

Steam  Blue  on  prepared  Cotton. 
6  gallons      Water,  cooked  with  7^^  lbs.  Starch. 
Into  the  hot  paste  stir 
49  lbs.  Prussiate  Tin, 

1  lb.  3  oz.     Sal-Ammoniac, 

12  lbs.  5  oz.  Yellow  Prussiate, 


9i  THE    AMERICAX   DYER. 

7  lbs.  6  oz.  Red  Piussiate.     When  solution  is  complete, 
add  tiually 
19  lbs.  11  oz.  Tartaric  Acid, 

1  lb.  13  oz.  Oxalic  Acid.     Stir  well  in. 

Steam  Blue  on  pi-ejmred  Goods. 
15  quarts  "Water,  cooked  with  9  lbs.  Starch;  add 
10  oz.        Sal-Ammoniac, 
24  lbs.       Tartaric  Acid, 
lUbs.     Oxalic  Acid, 

2  quarts  Water, 

18  lbs.       Yellow  Prussiate, 

6  lbs.       Red  Prussiate, 
32  lbs.       Prussiate  Tin. 

Sleam  Blue  on  prepared  Goods. 
2  lbs.       Starch,  and  1  lb.  3  oz.  Tragacauth  Mucilage, 

7  pints    "Water,    cooked  together.     To    the    hot    paste, 

add 
2\  lbs.     Yellow  Prussiate, 
2  lbs.       Red  Prussiate, 
1\  lbs.     Prussiate  Tin. 
After  the  solution  has  taken  place,  add 
2  quarts  Water, 
4  lbs.       Tartaric  Acid, 
10  oz.        Oxalic  Acid, 
4?T  oz.      Oil  Vitriol,  mixed  with 
41^  oz.      Water. 


Ultramarine  Blue  on  Cotton. 
3^  lbs.  Ultramarine,  3  F., 
IH  lbs.  Blood  Albumen  Solution, 
4  lbs.    Tragacauth  Mucilage  (|  oz.  to  the  quart), 
1^  lbs.  Common  Salt. 


THE    AMERICAX   DYER.  9,") 

Ultramarine  Blue  (darh), 
5|  lbs.  Ultramarine,  3  F., 

23  pints        Water, 

7  lbs.  5  oz.  Egg  Albumen  Solution  (1  lb.  to  the  quart), 
5|  lbs.  Gum  Water. 

Ultramarine  Blue. 

5  lbs.  7  oz.    Ultramarine  (superfine), 
2\  pints  Water, 

6  lbs.  14  oz.  Egg  Albumen  Solution  (1  lb.  to  the  quart), 
5^  lbs.  Gum  Water, 

1\  lbs.  Glycerine. 

Aniline  Blue  on  unprepared  Cotton. 
?)\  lbs.         Aniline  Blue  Carmine  (Knosp's), 
6  lbs.  9  oz.  Acetate  Alumina  A.,  and 
16^  lbs.         Starch  paste  (5^  oz.  to  the  quart  water). 

Aniline  Blue  thickened  with  Gum. 
5  oz.     Aniline  Blue  Carmine, 
9^^  oz.  Acetate  Alumina, 

2  lbs.    Gum  Water. 

The  pieces  printed  with  Aniline  Blue  Carmine  are  steamed 
like  other  steam  colors  and  washed,  and  then,  in  order  to 
remove  a  reddish  tinge  which  sticks  to  the  blue,  are  passed 
for  half  an  hour  through  a  soap-bath,  heated  to  140°  F. 

Steam  Blue  on  ^Vool. 
1  lb.  Starch,  cooked  in  11  pints  Water. 

To  the  hot  paste  add 
1|  lbs.  Tartaric  Acid, 

5  oz.  Alum, 

3  oz.  Oxalic  Acid.     When  dissolved,  add 
\\  lbs.  Eed  Prussiate, 

4  lbs.  10  oz.  Prussiate  of  Tin. 


96  THE   AMERICAN  DYER. 


Sky-Blue  on  Wool. 

lib.  2 

oz. 

fijie  Indigo  paste, 

7  oz. 

Alum, 

2^oz. 

Oxalic  Acid, 

13  pints 

Water, 

5f  lbs. 

Gum  Arabic. 

Aniline  Blue  on  Wool. 

\\  oz.   Aniline  Bine  (in  powder)  dissolved  in 
2  pints  Alcohol,  with  heat.     Add  then 
1  pint   Water,  tilter,  and  thicken  with 
12  pints  Gum  Water. 


GREENS. 

Fast  Green  on  Cotton  (dark 

4  quarts 

Water, 

26  lbs. 

Indigo  Precipitate,  No.  52, 

1  lb. 

Sugar  of  Lead, 

4  lbs. 

Nitrate  of  Lead, 

3  lbs. 

Starch,  ' 

5  lbs.  3 

oz.  British  Gum, 

9^oz. 

Oil  Turpentine. 

*        Fast  Green  on  Cotton  (light). 

38  lbs.    Gum  Water, 
4  lbs.    Nitrate  Lead, 
2  lbs.    Sugar  of  Lead, 

7  pints  boiling  Water, 

8  lbs.    Indigo  Precipitate, 

2  lbs.    Tin  Solution  for  Fast  Green,  No.  48, 


TKE    AMEKICAX    DYEK.  07 

Dark  Sleam  Green,  on  jirepared  Cotton. 
7|  lbs.  Persian  Berry  Decoction,  10^  B., 

3  gills  Water, 

1  lb.  7  oz.    Starch.     Then  add 

2  lbs.  7  oz.  Yellow  Prussiate, 
13  oz.  Red  Prussiate, 

4  lbs.  Prussiate  of  Tin, 
6|  oz.  Sal-Ammoniac, 

3  lbs.  2  oz.  Tartaric  Acid, 
2^  oz.  Oxalic  Acid, 

13  oz.  Alum. 

Steam  Green  on  prejmi'ed  Goods. 

6  lbs.  Tragacanth  Mucilage,  {%  oz.  to  the  quart), 

7  lbs.  5  oz.  Pjrolignite  Alumina,  11°  B., 

4  lbs.  Persian  Berries  Extract,  7°  B., 

5  oz.  Tartaric  Acid, 
6i-  oz.  Oxalic  Acid, 

2  lbs.  li^  oz. Yellow  Prussiate  Potash. 

Guignet  Green  on  Cotton. 
9  lbs.  3  oz.  Guiguet  Green  in  paste, 
11  oz.  Glycerine, 

11  oz.  Oil  Turpentine, 

11  lbs.  6  oz.  Blood  Albumen  Solution  (1  lb.  11  oz.  to  the 
quart). 

Steam  Green  on  Cotton. 
2  lbs.  3  oz.  Persitm  Berry  Decoction,  4°  B., 
4^  oz.  Starch, 

2  oz.  Alum, 

1  oz.  Oxalic  Acid, 

5-i  oz.  Prussiate  Tin, 

3  oz.  Yellow  Prussiate, 
1  oz.  Acetic  Acid,  8°  B. 

13 


98  THE   A^IEKICAN    DYER. 


Steam  Green  on  Cotton. 
13|  lbs.         Persian  Berry  Decoction,  4°  B., 
3^  lbs.      .   Gum  Aralnc, 
2\  lbs.         Yellow  Prussiate, 

1  lb.  6  oz.  Sulphate  Alumina, 
9  oz.  Oxalic  Acid, 

2  oz.  Salts  of  Tin. 

Steam  Green  on  Cotton  (Haicranek  Green). 
1^  lbs.  Starch,  cooked  with  ^ 

5  quarts       Water.     To  the  hot  paste  add 
2  lbs.  6  oz.  Yellow  Prussiate, 
9|  oz.  Red  Prussiate, 

5  lbs.  6  oz.  Prussiate  Tin, 
11^  lbs.  Chrome  Alum,  dissolved  in 

1  pint  AVater, 

4  oz.  Acetic  Acid,  8°  B. 

This  Green  is  frequently  printed  with  Guignet  Green, 

with  which  it  forms   a  pretty  contrast,   being  much 

darker. 
[It  is  much  improved  and  darkened  by  passing  through 

Bichromate,  after  printing  and  steaming.  s.  b.] 

/Sea- Green  (^Chrome  Green). 
In  9  quarts  Water,  dissolve 
13  oz.        White  Arsenic  ;  add  gradually 

12  oz.        Bichromate  Potash. 

Boil  and  filter,  drain  the  precipitate  well  and  dissolve  it  in 

13  oz.   Muriatic  Acid  at  22°  B.     Boil  the  solution  in  an 

enamelled  vessel  to  50°  B.,  and  then  add 
1  oz.   Sal-Ammoniac. 
Before  using  for  printing,  warm  the  mixture  and  thicken 

with 
3i  oz.  Dextrine. 


TIip    AMEIMCAX   DYEPt.  99 

Green  on  Cotton. 
2|  lbs.  Soap.     Dissolve  in 

8    quarts    Soap  wort   Decoction,    two   ounces    Saponaria 
officinalis  (Soapwort)  to  the  quart  water.      AVhen 
cool,  dissolve  in  it 
2\  lbs.    Sulphate    Copper  (Blue  Vitriol),  and  thicken 

with 
I  lb.  Pulverized  Gum  Tragacanth. 

Aniline  Green  on  Cotton. 
1  lb.  Aniline  Green  in  paste, 
f  lb.  Tragacanth  Mucilage, 
13  oz.  Blood  Albumen  Solution. 

Steam  Green  on  Wool. 

8  lbs.    Yellow  Lake, 

9  oz.      Oxitlic  Acid, 

15  oz.      Sulphate  Alumina, 
^  lbs.  Solution  Indigo  Paste.     Cook,  and  thicken  with 
3  lbs.    Gum  Arabic. 

Steam  Green  on  Wool. 
8  lbs.    Cuba  Lake, 
\  lb.      Oxalic  Acid, 
13  oz.      Sulphate  Alumina, 

8  lbs.    Indigo  Paste  Solution.     Cook,  and  thicken  with 
2|  lbs.  Gum. 

Indigo  Paste  Solution. 
2  lbs.      Indigo  Paste  dissolved  in 

9  quarts  Boiling  Water.     Filter. 

Steam  Green  on  Wool. 
8  lbs.  9  oz.  Quercitron  Liquor,  20^  B., 
^  oz.  Logwood  Liquor,  20^  B., 


100  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

1  lb.  10  oz.  Indigo  Paste, 
6  lbs.  Gum, 

2  quarts  Water.     Cook,  and  add  to  the  mixture j  when 

cold, 

11  oz.  Alum, 

11  oz.  Oxalic  Acid, 

1  oz.  Muriate  of  Tin,  at  55°  B. 


ORANGES. 

Darh  Chrome  Orange  on  Cotton. 

5  lbs.    Nitrate  of  Lead, 
5  lbs.    Pyrolignite  of  Lead, 
^  lb.      Starch, 
\  lb.      British  Gum, 

9  pints  Water.      Raise  in  Chrome  for  all  the   Chrome 
Oranges. 


'O" 


Dark  Chrome  Orange  on  Cotton. 

10  oz.     Starch,  cooked  to  a  paste  with 

5  gills  Water ;  add 
7  oz.    Acetic  Acid, 

I  oz.    Nitric  Acid.     When  the  paste  has  become  thin 
and  flowing,  add  gradually 
24  lbs.   Chrome  Orange  Standard,  50°  B.,  No.  12. 

Darh  Chrome  Orange  for  Cotton. 

6  lbs.  Chrome  Orange  Standard,  50°  B.,  No.  12,  cooked 

with 
1  lb.    British  Gum, 
\  lb.    Indigo  Paste  Solution  (page  99), 
^Ib.    Olive  Oil. 


THE    AMEKICAN    DYER.  101 

Dark  Chrome  Orange  for  Cotton. 
17  lbs.  Chrome  Orange  Standard,  50°  B.,  No.  12,  thick- 
ened with 
3  lbs.  Leicome. 

Chrome  Orange  on  Cotton  (middling  light) . 
15  lbs.       Sugar  of  Lead.     Dissolve  in 

2  quarts  Water.     Add 
29  quarts  Dextrine  Water  (1^  lbs.  to  the  quart). 

Chrome  Orange  (light). 
8  lbs.       Sugar  of  Lead. 

2  quarts  Water, 

29  quarts  Dextrine  Water. 
To  produce  with  regularity  any  shade  of  Chrome  Orange, 
it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  goods  should,  before  print- 
ing, be  passed  through  a  solution  of  Glauber  Salts.  Four 
and  a  half  ounces  of  Sulphate  of  Soda  to  the  quart  of  water, 
give  a  sufficient  strength.  The  goods  are  passed  in  the  vat 
with  rollers. 

Orange  on  Cotton. 

3  lbs.  Starch, 

4  lbs.  PjToligneous  Acid,  2°  B., 

2  lbs.  Persian  Berry  Decoction,  10°  B., 

1  lb.  6  oz.  Acetate  Lime.     Cook,  and,  when  cold,  add 

2  lbs.  7  oz.  Salts  of  Tin.     Dissolve. 

With  this  Orange,  Black,  Red  or  Chocolate  Mordants 
may  be  printed,  and  the  whole  raised  in  Garancine. 

Garancine  Orange  with  Flavine. 
2  lbs.  Starch; 

2  lbs.  3  oz.  Flavine, 
7  ounces        White  Arsenic, 


102  THE    AMEEICAX   DTEK. 

9  quarts  of    Water.     "When  cold,  and  just  before  using, 

add 
2  lbs.  5  oz.    Salts  of  Tin, 
18^^  ounces      Acetate  of  Soda. 
This  color  also  gives,  after   steaming,  a  better    Steam 

Orange  than  can  be  produced  with  Persian  Berries. 

Steam  Orange. 
4^  lbs.  Persian  Berry  Liquor,  4°  B., 

6    ounces      Wheat  Starch, 
4i^  ounces      Acetic  Acid,  8°  B., 

1  ounce        Sugar  of  Lead, 

b\  ounces      Sapan  Wood  Liquor,  10^  B. 
Cook  together  well,  and  wheu  cold,  add 
2|  ounces       Salts  of  Tin. 

Steam  Orange  on  Cotton. 
13i  lbs.  Persian  Berry  Liquor,  8°  B. 
?)\  lbs.  Oxidized  Sapan  Liquor  for  Orange,  No.  50. 
A\  lbs.  Acetate  Alumina,  15°  B., 
\  lb.       Sulphate  Alumina,  15°  B., 
7^^  lbs.  Gum  Arabic. 
This  color  may  be  printed  with  Steam  Blue. 

Steam  Orange  on  prejmred  Cotton. 
8    lbs.    Persian  Berry  Liquor,  7°  B., 
4|-  lbs.    Cochineal  Solution,  7°  B., 
3^  pints  Water,  are  cooked  with 

2  lbs.     Starch.     When  the  mixture  is  lukewarm,  add 
\  lb.        Oxalic  Acid,  and 

I  lb.         Salts  of  Tin,  and,  when  fully  cold,  add 
4  ounces  Tin  Composition  for  Orange  8,  No.  27. 

Steam  Chrome  Orange. 
3^  lbs.  Chrome  Orange  Pigment, 
8    lbs.  Egg  or  Blood  Albumen  Solution. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  103 


Steam  Chrome  Orange  {light) . 
13  ounces  Chrome  Orange  Pigment, 

3  lbs.        Chrome  Yellow  Pigment, 
12  lbs.        Egg  or  Blood  Albumen  Solution  and 

8  quarts   Gum  Water  or  Tragacanth  Mucilage. 


YELLOWS. 

Steam  Yelloio  on  prepared  Goods. 
12^  lbs.  Standard  for  Yellow, 
1    lb.     Sugar  of  Lead, 
1    lb.    Salts  of  Till. 

Steam  Yelloio  I.  on  jyrepared  Goods. 
171  lbs.  Standard  for  Yellow, 
\\  lbs.  Salts  of  Tin, 
1    lb.     Sugar  of  Lead. 

Standard  for  Yellow. 
15  lbs.  Persian  Berry  Decoction,  7°  B., 

6  lbs.  Gum  Arabic. 

Steam  Orange  I.  on  jyrepared  Goods. 
3  lbs.  Steam  Yellow  I.  (above). 
1  lb.    Steam  Red,  I. 

Steam  Yellow  on  prej^ared  Goods. 

7  lbs.        Quercitron  Liquor,  20°  B., 
21-  lbs.      Nitrate  Alumina,  17°  B., 
2V  lbs.      Acetate  Alumina,  15°  B., 

^  lb.        Sal-Ammoniac,  and 
6  ounces  Oxalic  Acid,  are  dissolved  in 
1\  pints  of  Water,  and  thickened  with 
6    lbs.       Gum  Arabic. 


104  THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 

Steam  Orange  0.  on  Cotton. 

1  lb.  3  oz.    Anatto, 

2  lbs  3  oz.  Caustic  Soda  Solution,  10°  B., 
6  ounces      Sulphate  Alumina, 

1\  ounces     Tartaric  Acid,  and 
^  lbs.  Gum  Water. 

British  Gum  Water  or  Tragacanth   Mucilage,  may   be 
used  in  place  of  the  Gum  Water. 

Steam  Yellow  on  Wool. 

3  ounces       Scarlet  Red  I.  for  Wool, 
6  ounces       Salts  of  Sorrel, 

16  lbs.  6  oz.  Persian  Berry  Liquor,  7°  B., 

4  lbs.  Gum  Arabic  and 

13  ounces       Muriate  of  Tin,  55<^  B. 

Steam  Yellow  on  Wool. 

14  lbs.  Persian  Berry  Liquor,  7°  B. , 
4  lbs.  Gum  Arabic, 

11  ounces      Muriate  Tin,  55°  B.,  and 
1  lb.  6  oz.  Steam  Scarlet  Red  I.  for  Wool. 


BUFF 

,  NANKEEN 

,  AND  STRAW 

COLORS. 

Dark  Buff. 

3|  lbs. 

Iron  Liquor, 

14°  B., 

5  quarts 

Water, 

lib. 

Flour, 

1  lb. 

Starch, 

2|  lbs. 

Copperas, 

2|  lbs. 

Brown  Sugar 

of  Lead. 

THE   AMERICAN    DYER.  105 

Nanlx.een  I. 
\\\  lbs.  Nunkeen  Standard  I.,  15^  B., 
5^  lbs.  Pyrolignite  Alumiua,  8°  B.,  are  cooked  with 
4  lbs.     British  Gum, 
1  lb.      Spirits  Turpentine. 

JSfanl'een  1-10. 
1  lb.    Nankeen  I., 
10  lbs.  Thin  British  Gum  Water. 

Nankeen  1-20. 

1  lb.    Nankeen  I., 

20  lbs.  Thin  British  Gum  Water. 

Dark  Buff. 
4|  lbs.  Nankeen  Standard  I., 
\Q^  oz.  Copperas, 

2  lbs.    Gum  Arabic. 

Nankeen  III. 

14  lbs.  Nankeen  Standard  III.,  25°  B., 
7  lbs.  British  Gum, 

7  oz.    Spirits  of  Turpentine. 

Nankeen  3-6. 
1  lb.    Nankeen  III., 
6  lbs.  British  Gum  Water. 

Nankeen  3-15. 
1  lb.    Nankeen  III., 

15  lbs.  British  Gum  Water. 

Nankeen  II. 
4  lbs.  Nankeen  Standard  II., 
6  lbs.  Tragacanth  Mucilage  {\  oz.  to  the  quart). 

14 


106  THE    AMERICAN   DTEIi. 

ff 

Steam  Nankeen  D.,  on  j)rejpared  Goods. 
4  lbs.  Steam  Orange  I., 
1  lb.    Steam  Rose  I., 
10  lbs.  Gum  AVater. 

Steam  Xankeen  0.,  on  Cotton. 
1  lb.    Steam  Orange  O., 
10  lbs.  Gum  Water. 


CATECHUS. 
» 

Standard  A.  for     Catechu    Colors    raised   in    Madder   or 

Garancine. 

2  quarts  AVater, 

3  lbs.  10  oz.  Pyroligneous  Acid,  2°  B., 

2  lb.  7  oz.      Catechu, 

f  lb.  Acetate  Lime,  15°  B., 

1  lb.  9  oz.     Sal-Ammouiac, 

3  lbs.  Gum  Arabic. 

It  is  an  advantage  to  wash  the  Catechu  with  cold  water 
before  using  it.  This  dissolves  out  the  tannin  which  is  some- 
times injurious,  but  does  not  dissolve  the  catechine. 

Catechu  I. 
6^  lbs.  Standard  A., 
1  lb.      Acetate  Alumina,  12°  B.,  and 
2|  oz.  Nitrate  Copper,  55°  B. 

Catechu  II.,  redder  than  I. 
6\  lbs.  Catechu  Standard  A., 

1  lb.  10  oz.  Acetate  Alumina,  12°  B.,  and 
2|  oz.  Nitrate  Copper,  55°  B. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  107 


Dark  Calechu,  to  he  raised  in  Garancine. 
8  lbs.      Acetic  Acid,  8°  B., 
8  quarts  Water, 
121  lbs.     Catechu, 
8  quarts  Gum  ^yate^  or  Tragacauth  Mucilage, 

14  oz.        Olive  Oil, 

6^  lbs.    Sal-Araraoniac, 

6  lbs.      Acetate  Copper,  19^  B., 

\  lb.        Nitrate  Copper,  55°  B. 

Catechu  Reserve  for  Purple  or  Chocolate  Over- Printing. 
4  lbs.  Lemon  Juice,  27°  B., 

15  oz.  Acetic  Acid,  8°  B., 
1  lb.  14  oz.  Catechu, 

17  oz.  Sal-Ammoniac, 

1  lb.  5  oz.    Gum.     Cook,  and  when  cold,  add 
\  lb.  Nitrate  Copi)er. 

In  dunsinir  this  reserve,  some  Bichromate  must  be  added 
to  the  dung-bath.  To  1,000  quarts,  liquid,  4  lbs.  Bichro- 
mate are  sufficient. 


Catechu  Reserve. 

2\  pints  Water, 

7  oz. 

Acetic  Acid,  8°  B., 

17  oz. 

Catechu, 

17  oz. 

Sal-Ammoniac, 

\oz. 

Crystallized  Verdigris, 

2f  oz. 

Crystallized  Nitrate  Copper, 

2oz. 

Crystallized  Citric  Acid, 

1  lb. 

Gum  Arabic. 

Dark  Calechu  Standard. 

2i  pints  Water, 

2    lbs.  6  oz.     Pyroligneous  Acid,  2°  B., 

1    lb.    9  oz.      Catechu, 


108  THE    A^IEIIICAN    DYER. 

6    ounces  Acetate  Lime,  15°  B., 

1  lb.  Sal-Ammoniac. 

Dark  Catechu. 

2  quarts     Dark  Catechu  Standard, 
6    ounces    Starch, 

1^  ounces    Acetate  Ahimina,  15*^  B., 
2|  ounces    Nitrate  Copper,  55°  B. 

Catechu  Standard  for  Gray  raised  in  Garancine. 


14    ounces 

Catechu, 

\    lb. 

Sal-Ammoniac, 

2    lbs.  3  oz. 

Pyroligneous  Acid,  2°  B., 

1    quart 

"Water, 

11  lbs. 

British  Gum.     Cook,  and  when  cold  add 

lOi^  ounces 

Pyrolignite  Copper,  19°  B., 

1    ounce 

Nitrate  Copper,  50°  B. 

Dark  Catechu,  45. 
1    quart     Catechu  Standard  for  Gray, 
1\  ounces  Iron  Liquor,  15°  B. 

Dark  Catechu,  90. 
1  quart     Catechu  Standard  for  Gray, 
3  ounces  Iron  Liquor,  15°  B. 

Dark  Catechu,  150. 
1  quart     Catechu  Standard  for  Gray, 
5  ounces  Iron  Liquor,  15°  B., 

These  Grays  may  be  rendered  lighter  by  diluting  with 
British  Gum  Water. 

Catechu  Gray,  a. 

I  quart     Standard  A.  for  Catechu  (page  106), 
\\  ounces  Pyrolignite  Alumina,  10°  B., 

\    lb.         Iron  Liquor,  10°  B., 

II  ounces  Nitrate  Copper,  50°  B. 


THE    AMERICAX   DYER.  109 

Catechu  Gray,  h. 

1  quart     Standard  A.  for  Catechu, 

2  ounces  Pyrol ignite  Alumina, 

1    lb.         Pyrolignite  Iron,  10°  B., 
]|  ounces  Nitrate  Copper,  50°  B. 

Catechu  Gray,  c. 
1    quart     Standard  A.  for  Catechu, 
1^  lbs.        Gum  Water, 

1  ounce    Pj'rolignite  Alumina,  10°  B., 
1\  ounces  Nitrate  Copper,  50°  B., 

8  ounces  Pyrolignite  Iron,  10°  B. 

Catechu  Standard  O. 
b\  pints  "Water, 

4|  lbs.  Pyroligneous  Acid,  2°  B., 

3  lbs.  Catechu, 

2  lbs.  3  oz.     Sal-Ammoniac, 

14    ounces  Acetate  Lime,  15°  B.     Let  stand  12  hours, 
arid  thicken  the  decanted  liquor  with 
5    lbs.  2  oz.  Dextrine. 

Catechu  O.,  to  be  raised  in  Garancine. 
18|  lbs.  Catechu  Standard  O., 

1  lb.       Acetate  Alumina,  11°  B., 

9  oz.       Nitrate  Copper,  50°  B. 

Catechu  to  he  raised  in  Madder  or  Floivers. 

2|  lbs.  Catechu, 

8  lbs.  Pyroligneous  Acid,  2°  B., 

I  lb.  Gum  Arabic, 

f  lb.  Verdigris  in  Crystals, 

2  lbs.  Sal-Ammoniac, 
61  lbs.  Gum  Water. 


110  THE    AMEKICAX   DYER. 


Cateclm  Standard  M,  for  Garancine  Gray. 

10  quarts  Water, 
8  lbs.      Catechu, 
5  lbs.       Sal-Ammoniac, 

4  lbs.      Pyroligueous  Acid,  2°  B., 

3  lbs.      Pyrolignite  Copper,  15°  B., 
14  lbs.       Gum  Arabic. 

Garancine  Gray. 
10  quarts  Catechu  Standard  M., 
2  quarts  Gum  Water, 

5  oz.        Muriate  Iron,  40°  B. 

This  same  recipe  will  answer  for  other  Catechu  Grays  by 
increasing  the  amount  of  Muriate  of  Iron,  at  40°.  As  high 
as  20  ounces  of  Iron  may  be  used. 


STEAM  CATECHUS. 

Dark  Steam  Catechu  on  Cotton. 
?)\  lbs.  Sapan  Liquor,  2°  B., 

i  lb.    Acetic  Acid,  8°  B., 

\  lb.     Catechu, 
2  oz.      Sal-Ammoniac, 
1^  oz.    Verdigris  in  crystals, 

2  lbs.     Gum  Arabic. 

Light  Steam  Catechu  on  Cotton. 
In  15  pints  Water,  dissolve  * 

3  lbs.    Catechu  and  let  settle. 

To  5  quarts  of  the  clear  liquor,  add 

4  oz.      Sal-Ammoniac, 

4  oz.      Nitrate  Copper,  55°  B., 
6  lbs.     Gum  Arabic. 


THE    ^UIEEIC^VN   DYER.  Ill 


Steam  Catechu  Standard  P, 

5  quarts  Water, 

18  oz.        Acetic  Acid,  8°  B., 
3  lbs.       Catechu, 
7  lbs.       Gum  Arabic.  ' 

Steam  Catechu  P.,  on  Cotton. 
\^\  lbs.  Steam  Catechu  Standard  P., 

6  oz.      Chlorate  Potash, 

2^  lbs.  Nitrate  Ahimina,  17°  B., 

7  oz.      Nitrate  Copper,  55°  B. 

Steam  Catechu  on  Wool. 

2  lbs.  10  oz.  Catechu, 

f  lb.  Quercitron  Liquor,  20°  B., 

6  oz.  Sapan  Liquor,  20°  B., 

3  quarts  "Water, 

3^  oz.  Sal-Amraoniac, 

3|  oz.  Chlorate  Potash, 

13  oz.  Sulphate  Alumina, 

3  quarts  Gum  Water. 

Dark  Steam  Catechu  on  prejKired  Cotton. 
2  lbs.  6  oz.   Starch, 
3|  oz.  British  Gum, 

4  lbs.  10  oz.  Quercitron  Liquor,  20°  B., 
1  lb.  Sapan  Liquor,  20°  B., 

5  oz.  Logwood  Liquor,  20°  B., 
11  pints          Water, 

1  lb.  Alum, 

1^  oz.  Chlorate  Potash. 

Cook,  and  after  it  is  cold  add 

2i-  oz.  Red  Prussiate  Potash. 


112  THE    AMERICAX   DYER. 

GRAYS. 

Mineral  Gray  on  Cotton. 
1  lb.    Lampblack, 

3  lbs.  Oil  Vitriol,  QQ"". 

Stir  well  together,  and  let  stand  12  hours.  Then  wash 
well  with  water,  and  filter.  To  the  paste  on  the  filter,  add  2 
quarts  of  water,  and  rub  it  well  together.  Then  add  11^  lbs. 
of  a  solution  of  Bh)od  Albumen  (1  lb.  10  oz.  of  the  Albumen 
to  the  quart  of  water) . 

Bluish  Mineral  Gray. 

4  lbs.  of  the  above  Mineral  Gray, 
6  lbs.  Ultramarine  O. 

Ultramarine  O. 
1  lb.  Ultramarine,  3  F., 
3  lbs.  Blood  Albumen  Solution. 

Steam  Gray  C.  C.  on  Cotton. 
Logwood  Liquor,  20°  B., 
Quercitron  Liquor,  20°  B., 
Water, 

Sal-Ammoniac, 
British  Gum, 
Iron  Liquor,  10°  B., 
Blue  Vitriol, 

Iron    Composition    for  Steam   Gray    C.    C. 
Prep.  No.  20. 
1  lb.  14  oz.  Sulphate  Chrome,  55°  B., 
15  oz.  Spirits  Turpentine, 

To  render  this  color  lighter,  it  may  be  diluted  by  adding 
to  it  more  or  less  of  the  following  composition  : 
17  pints  British  Gum  AVater  (1^  lbs.  to  the  quart), 

\\  lbs.  Iron  Composition  for  Gray  C*  C, 


4  lbs. 

1  lb. 

1  quart 

fib. 
5  lbs. 

3^  lbs. 
l^lb. 

18  oz. 

THE    AMERICAN   DYEIl.  113 

1^  lbs.  Sulphate  Chrome,  35^  B., 
^  lb.      Spirits  Turpentine, 
^  lb.      ^.'itrate  Ammonia. 

Steam  Gray  A.  G.  on  Cotton. 
9  quarts  Gray  Standard,  A.  G.  (Mor.  No.  15), 
If  lbs.     Starch, 
1^  lbs.    British  Gum. 
This  color  may  be  diluted  with  the  ordinary  British  Gum 

Water.     It  need  not  necessarily  be  steamed  to  fix  it. 

Hanging   in    a    warm    damp    room  and    then  passing 

through  a  chalk-bath  is  sufficient. 

Steam  Gray  on  Cotton. 

8  ll)s.     Trngacanth  Mucilage, 

9  pints  Water, 

3  lbs.     Gray  Standard,  A.  G.     No.  15. 

Steam  Gray  on  Cotton. 

1  lb.  14  oz.  Logwood  Liquor,  10°  B., 
7  oz.  Sapan  Liquor,  20°  B., 

3|  oz.  Cuba  YeHow  Wood  Liquor,  20°  B., 

5^  lbs.  British  Gum, 

11  pints  Water, 

2  lbs.  3  oz.  Acetate  Chrome,  15°  B. 

Steam  Gray  C.  on  Cotton. 
To  3|  lbs.  Logwood  Liquor,  at  10°  B.,  add  gradually  a  so- 
lution of 
5^  oz.   Bichromate  of  Potash  in 
9  pints  Water,  and 
15  oz.      Muriatic  Acid. 

Cook  the  mixture,  and,  while  hot,  thicken  with 
5|  lbs.  British  Gum  ;  then  add 
^\  oz.    Acetate  Protoxide  of  Iron,  10°  B., 
13  oz.      Sulphate  of  Chrome,  at  50°  B. 

15 


114  THE    AMERTCAX   DYEK. 

This   Gray  may  be  lightened  with  the   following  Gum 
Water  :— 

Gum  Water  for  Gray  C 
10  lbs.    Dextrine  Gum  Water  (2  lbs.  to  the  quart), 
10  pints  Water, 
b\  oz.  Sulphate  Chrome,  50°  B. 

Steam  Gray  on  Cotton. 
2\  lbs.  Oxidized  Logwood  Liquor,  10°  B., 
2  lbs.    Tragacanth  Mucilage  (2  oz.  to  the  quart), 
\  lb.      Starch, 
2  oz.      Leicome, 
\  oz.      Bichromate  Potash, 
1  oz.      Muriatic  Acid, 

1  lb.      Acetate  of  Chrome,  15°  B. 

Oxidized  Logwood  Liquor. 
8^  lbs.  Logwood  Liquor,  10°  B., 

2  oz.      Bichromate  Potash, 
1|  oz.    Muriatic  Acid. 

Steam  Gray  on  Cotton. 
1\  lbs.  Logwood  Liquor,  20°  B., 

1  lb.  14  oz.  Pyrolignite  Alumina,  10°  B., 
5  pints  Water,     - 

1|  lbs.  British  Gum, 

1  lb.  Acetate  Chrome,  15°  B. 

Steam  Gray  on  Cotton. 
5  quarts  Gum  Water, 
2\  lbs.    Decoction  Nutgalls,  10°  B., 
5^  oz.      Muriate  Iron,  40°  B. 

Steam  Gray  on  Cotton. 
4  lbs.  Logwood  Liquor,  8°  B., 

2  lbs.  L-on  Liquor,  7°  B. , 
8  lbs.  Leicome  Water. 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  Ho 

OLIVES. 

Olive  on  Cotton. 

13  pints  Water, 

3  lbs.  Quercitron  Liquor,  20°  B., 

14  oz.  Starch, 

2  lbs.  3  oz.  Leicome, 
2  lbs.  Copperas. 

Darlc  Steam  Olive  on  Cotton. 

2  lbs.  13  oz.  Persian  Berry  Liquor,  7°  B., 
71  pints  Water, 

1  lb.  7  oz.      Acetic  Acid,  8°  B., 

1^  oz.  Logwood  Liquor,  20°  B., 

2  lbs.  Alum, 

2  lbs.  Sugar  of  Lead, 

2|  lbs.  Starch, 

are  well  cooked  together.     After  it  is  cold,  add 

2  lbs.  6  oz.    Muriate  Iron,  40°  B. 

Steai7i  Olive  on  Cotton. 

4  lbs.  Quercitron  Liquor,  4°  B., 
1  lb.    Iron  Liquor,  5°  B., 
6  lbs.  Gum  Water. 


MODE  COLORS. 

Mode  Standard. 

13  lbs.    Solution  Catechu  in  Water,  8°  B., 
1^  lbs.  Pyroligneous  Acid,  2°  B., 
71  lbs.  British  Gum. 


116  THE   AMEKICAX   BYEK. 


Mode  2-1. 

2  lbs.  Mode  Standard, 

1  lb.  Iron  Preparation  for  Modes,  No.  36. 

Mode  5-3. 

5  lbs.  Mode  Standard, 

3  lbs.  Iron  Preparation,  No.  36. 

Mode  1-3.     . 
1  lb.    Mode  Standard, 
3  lbs.  Iron  Preparation,  No.  36. 

Mode  1-8. 
1  lb.    Mode  Standard, 

8  lbs.  Iron  Preparation,  No.  36. 

Mode  1-13. 

1  lb.    Mode  Standard, 

13  lbs.  Iron  Preparation,  No.  36. 

These  mode  colors  may  be  fixed  by  steaming,  or  by  pass- 
ing through  a  chalk  or  chrome  bath  after  ageing  12 
hours. 

Steam  Mode  Gray  on  Cotton. 

6  lbs.  Iron  Liquor,  10°  B., 
^Ib.    Acetic  Acid,  8°  B., 

i  oz.   Logwood  Liquor,  20°  B., 
i  gill  Water, 
3  oz.  Alum, 

9  oz.   Sal-Ammoniac, 
12  lbs.  Gum  Arabic. 

8team  Mode  Gray  on  Cotton. 
11  lbs.  Pyroligneous  Acid,  2°  B., 

2  lbs.  Iron  Liquor,  14°  B., 

2  lbs.  Decoction  of  Galls,  4°  B., 


THE    A3IEKICAX    DYER.  117 


|lb. 

Sulphate  Chrome,  50^  B., 

1  oz. 

Logwood  Liquor,  20^  B., 

1  quart 

Water, 

1  lb.  14  oz.  Sal-Ammoniac. 


RESERVES  AND  DISCHARGES. 

For  Reds,  Pinks,  and  PurjjJes  Over-Printing. 

3  lbs.    Tartaric  Acid,  dissolved  iu  2  quarts  Water, 
1^  lbs.  Bichromate  Potash,  *«  "  " 

Tib.      Calciued  Soda,  "  1 

8  lbs.     British  Gum.     Cook. 

For  Same. 

Lemon-Juice,  30^  B., 

British  Gum, 

Flour, 

Oil.     Cook,  and  when  cold,  add 

Bichromate  Potash,  and 
3  lbs.       Tartaric  Acid,  dissolved  iu 
3  quarts  "Water. 

For  Catechus,  Chocolates,  or  above  Colors. 

12  lbs.        Citric  Acid  iu  Crystals, 
3  gallons  Water, 
8  lbs.        British  Gum.     Cook. 

For  PitrjjJes  and  Pinks. 

G}r  lbs.  Caustic  Soda  Solution,  15^  B., 
6^  lbs.  Lemon-Juice,  30^  B., 
2"lbs.    British  Gum. 


12  lbs. 

8  lbs. 

lib. 

l^rOZ. 

3|  lbs. 

118  THE  a:meiiicax  dyer. 

Discharge  for  Goods  padded  in  Acetate  of  Alumina  or  Ace- 
tate of  Iron, 
71  lbs.     British  Gum, 
15  lbs.       Lime-Juioe,  30°  B., 
2  quarts  Water, 

2  lbs.       Bisulphate  of  Soda, 

3  lbs.       Calciued  Soda, 
6  lbs.       Oil  Vitriol. 

Reserve  for  Machine  Printing. 

12  lbs.  Arseniate  of  Potash  (or  Soda), 

25  lbs.  Water, 

10  lbs.  British  Gum. 

Another. 

4  lbs.      British  Gum, 

5^  lbs.    Arseniate  Potash  (or  Soda), 
3  lbs.       Soda  Crystals, 

1  gallon  Water. 

Resist  for  Catechus  and  Chocolates. 

68  lbs.  Lime-Juice,  30°  B., 
30  lbs.  Soda  Lye,  30°  B., 

2  lbs.  Citric  Acid  in  Crystals, 
I  lb»    Sulphate  of  Indigo, 

5  lbs.  Wheat  Starch. 

Yellow  Reserve  for  Indigo -Vat. 

S\  jDiuts  Water, 
31  lbs.     Sulphate  Copper, 
5  lbs.    Nitrate  of  Lead, 
2f  lbs.  Sulphate  of  Lead, 
31  lbs.  British  Gum. 


THE    AMEKICAX    DYER.  119 

Resist  for  Chrome  Orange  or  Aniline  Blade. 
\\  gallons  Water, 

7^  lbs.  Arseniate  Potash  (or  Soda), 
Tib.      Hog's  Fat, 
10  lbs.    British  Gum, 
4  lbs.     Acetic  Acid,  7^  B. 

Resist  for  Steam  Colors. 
fib.       Glue, 

7  pints    "Water, 

4|  lbs.    Pipe-Clay, 
4|  lbs.    Gum  Water. 

Reserve  for  Ultramarine. 
6  lbs.     China  Clay, 
1  cpiart  AVater, 
3  lbs.     Gum  Water, 
1\  lbs.  Citric  Acid  in  Crystals, 
1  quart  Water. 

Reserve  for  Indigo-  Vat. 
1  lb.         Verdigris,  soaked  in 
1^  pints  Water.     After  24  hours,  add 
I  lb.         Cream  of  Tartar,  and  thicken  with 
f  lb.         British  Gum.     Then  add 
1  quart    Gum  Water,  and 
U  lbs.     Nitrate  Copper,  50^  B. 

Reserve  for  Indigo. 
15  lbs.  Verdigris, 
24  lbs.  Pyroligneous  Acid.     Soak,  and  add  ■ 

G  lbs.  Cream  of  Tartar, 

G  lbs.  Brown  Sugar  of  Lead, 

8  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol, 
12  lbs.  Brftish  Gum. 


120  THE    AMERICAN    DTEE. 

Discharge  for  Chrome  Orange. 
In  4^  lbs.  Tragaciinth  Solution  (li^  oz.  to  quart  Water)  dis- 
solve with  heat, 
\\  lbs.  Tartaric  Acid, 
f  "lb.      Oxalic  Acid  ;  then  add 
1  lb.      Pipe-Clay, 

i  lb.      Tin  Solution    (2   lbs.    of  Tin  Crystals  in  1  lb. 
Muriatic  Acid). 

Discharge  for  Prussian  Blue. 

3  lbs.  Caustic  Soda  Lye, 

1  lb.    British  Gum. 

1  hour  after  printing,  AVash.  The  parts  printed  will  ap- 
pear of  a  3'ellow  rust  color,  and  to  remove"  this,  the 
pieces  must  be  taken  through  acid. 


MADDER  EXTRACT. 

Formerly,  the  madder  root,  simpl}^  dried  and  ground,  was 
exclusively  employed  in  printing.  But  it  is  evident  that  so 
complex  a  substance  as  a  root,  contains,  besides  the  coloring 
substance  or  useful  principle,  other  bodies  capable  of  counter- 
acting this  principle  and  injuring  the  beauty  of  the  tints 
derived  from  it. 

For  the  purpose,  therefore,  of  eliminating  these  useless 
substances,  there  is  now  produced  on  a  manufacturing  scale, 
and  can  be  found  in  market, 

1.  Flowers  of  3Ia elder  (fleur  do  garance),  or  the  ground 
root  deprived  of  its  soluble  portions,  by  washing  it  with  water. 
The  madder  loses  by  this  washing  about  50  per  cent,  of  its 
weight.  The  flower,  therefore,  possesses  a  coloring  power 
double  that  of  madder,  and  works  with  more  regularity  in 
dyeing. 


THR    AME]aCAX   DYER.  121 

2.  Garancine,  or  tlie  ground  maddor  treiitcd  with  sulphuric 
ftcid,  washed  and  dried.  In  the  preparation  of  garantino,  the 
foreign  substances  are  more  completely  eliminated  than  by 
water  alone,  so  that  a  more  concentrated  article  is  produced ; 
and  not  only  this,  but  a  part  of  the  coloring  substance  is 
liberated  from  its  combination  with  the  pectatcs  of  lime  and 
glucosides  contained  in  the  madder  root,  which,  unless  so 
liberated,  would  be  lost  in  working.  The  proportion  of  color- 
ing matter  so  liberated  amounts  to  not  less  than  half  of  the 
total  quantity  contained  in  the  root,  and  repays  well  the 
expense  of  making  it  into  garancine. 

3.  Commercial  Ali::arine ;  or  superheated  garancine.  This 
preparation  has  met  with  groat  success,  on  account  of  the 
beauty  of  the  purples  it  furnishes  with  the  mordants  of  iron. 
The  heat  (392°  F.)  destroys  a  yellow  or  tawny  principle 
which  injures  the  brilliancy  of  the  colors,  particularly  the 
purples. 

In  these  three  products-,  a  portion  of  the  wo/)dy  fibre  of  the 
root  still  remains,  so  that  they  can  be  used  only  in  the  old 
form  of  raisi'jg,  in  the  usual  madder-beck,  the  goods  on  which 
the  mordants  have  been  previously  printed. 

If  the  color  could  be  separated  from  the  woody  fibre  so 
that  it  could  be  printed  directly  on  the  cloth,  the  immense 
advantage  of  this  process  would  cause  it  to  be  adopted  event- 
ually by  all  calico-printers.  But  it  is  to  be  remembered  that 
so  great  a  change  in  a  manufacture  which  has  existed  for  cen- 
turies, cannot  take  place  suddenl}'.  \\\  the  present  state  of 
things,  however,  it  is  easy  to  foresee  that  the  old  process  will 
gradually  but  certainly  be  replaced  by  the  new%  which  is  by 
the  employment  of 

4.  Extract  of  Madder.  An  extract  from  madder  suflSciently 
pure  to  be  employed  in  printing  directly  upon  the  cloth  has 
been  long  sought  for,  but  it  is  only  within  a  few  years  past 
that  this  result  has  been  attained,  at  a  price  which  would  per- 
mit it  to  be  employed.  The  processes  now  in  use  for  manu- 
facturing it,  may  be  reduced  to  three  in  number. 

16 


122  THE    A3IEKICAN    DYER. 

The  first  consists  in  boiling  garancine  with  a  weak  solution 
of  alum.  By  this  nie:wis,  nearly  all  the  coloring  matter  may 
be  extracted  in  a  condition  of  great  purity,  and  the  color  pre- 
cipitates from  the  alum  solution  on  cooling,  with  the  addition 
of  a  little  sulphuric  acid.  It  is  then  collected  on  a  filter, 
carefully  washed,  and,  in  the  condition  of  a  paste,  is  ready  for 
use  in  printing.  The  defect  of  this  princess  consists  in  the 
loss  of  the  alum  and  the  acid,  which  are  washed  away;  and 
also  in  the  fact,  that  the  paste  obstinately  retains  a  little 
alumina,  even  after  the  most  careful  washing,  and  therefore 
the purjjles  made  by  it  are  not  quite  satisfactory. 

The  second  was  published  by  Emil  Kopp,  in  18G7,  and  is 
very  ingenious.  It  consists  in  extracting  the  color  from  the 
fresh  madder  by  means  of  water  acidulated  with  sulphurous 
acid,  and  in  purifj'ing  the  color  so  extracted  by  boiling  it 
with  one  of  the  cheap  hydro-carbon  oils  —  coal-oil  or  petro- 
leum—  in  which  it  dissolves.  The  petroleum  solution  is 
then  treated  with  a  weak  solution  of  caustic  soda,  which 
deprives  the  petroleum  of  the  color,  and  leaves  it  (the  oil)  in 
a  state  to  be  used  over  again.  The  soda  solution  is  then 
treated  with  a  weak  sulphuric  or  muriatic  acid,  which  pre- 
cipitates the  color  in  the  form  of  a  paste,  which,  after  wash- 
ins:,  is  readv  for  use.  The  madder  residue  is  then  converted 
into  garancine,  and  from  this,  an  additional  quantity  of  color 
is  extracted  by  similar  means. 

The  Ihird  process  is  due  to  Schutzenberger,  and  consists 
in  the  extraction  of  the  color  from  garancine  by  means  of 
water  heated  to  a  very  high  temperature,  say  at  a  pressure  of 
125  to  150  pounds  of  steam.  The  color  falls  from  the  water 
on  drawing;  otf  and  coolino:.  The  extract  so  made  is  excel- 
lent. 

The  objection  to  this  process  is  the  difficulty  of  operating 
at  so  great  a  pressure,  and  from  the  necessity  of  the  vessel's 
being  of  small  capacity,  to  resist  the  pressuie.  A  modifica- 
tion of  it  is  therefore  also  in  use,  which  consists  in  passing 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  1215 

superheated  steam  through  moist  garaiicinc,  and  condensing- 
the  water}'  extract  so  made. 

The  al)ove  are  the  only  processes  that  appear  to  Ifave  suc- 
ceeded oil  a  practical  scale  for  obtaining  an  extract  of  madder 
sufficiently  pure  and  sufficiently  cheap  to  be  employed  ia 
printing.  The  extraction  of  the  color  by  means  of  alkalies, 
potash,  soda,  or  ammonia,  which  is  by  far  the  easiest  and 
cheapest  mode,  —  as  any  one  may  convince  himself  of  by 
shaking  up  a  little  garancine  in  a  test-tube  with  ammonia 
water,  —  has  failed,  in  consequence  of  the  alkali  dissolving 
the  resin,  fat,  and  pectic  acid,  as  well  as  the  color.  This 
renders  it  wholly  unfit  for  printing,  but  does  not  prevent  its 
employment  in  the  dye  beck.  There  would  in  this  case, 
however,  be  no  advantage  in  using  the  alkaline  extract 
instead  of  the  madder  from  which  it  was*  made.  But  this 
subject  needs  further  investigation,  and  would  probably  well 
repay  the  researches  of  any  competeut  chemist.  The  fact 
stated  by  Persoz,  of  the  great  advantage  to  be  derived  from 
the  addition  of  soap  to  the  dye-beck  is,  perhaps,  owing  to 
the  alkali  of  the  soap  rendering  the  solution  of  the  color,  by 
the  hot  water,  more  complete,  without  being  present  in  suffi- 
cient quantity  to  dissolve  the  injurious  components  of  the 
madder. 

The  principal  conditions  necessary  to  success  in  printing 
either  of  the  above  extracts  are,  — 

1.  That  the  extract  be  pure  and  concentrated. 

2.  The  substitution  of  pure  acetate  of  alumina  for  the  old 
red  liquor  mordant,  which  contains  acetate  of  potash  or 
ammonia,  in  addition  to  the  acetate  of  alumina. 

3.  The  employment  of  a  solvent  for  the  color,  which  is 
acetic  acid. 

4.  The  addition  of  certain  substances  to  orive  a  certain 
degree  of  hygrometric  property  to  the  color,  such  as  salts  of 
lime,  oils,  or  fatty  acids. 

The  color  thus  prepared,  and  properly  thickened,  is  to  be 


124  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

printed    in    accordance    witii    the    following    recipes.       The 
''  doctor"  must  be  of  composition,  and  not  of  steel. 

Reds  on  unprepared  Cotton. 

2  quarts  Madder  Extract, 

3  pints    Acetic  Acid,  at  8°  B., 

1  lb.  Olive  Oil,  are  cooked  together.  Then  as  much 
acetic  acid  as  has  been  steamed  off  must  be  re- 
stored by  fresh  acid,  and  the  mixture  thickened 
with 

3  lbs.  of  powdered  Gum  Arabic. 
Immediately  before  using, 

1   pint  of  Acetate  of  Alumina,  at  15°  B.,  is  added,  as 
the  mordant. 
It  is  essential  'not  to   add  the  mordant  until  just  before 
using,  for  the  color  does  not  maintain  its  combination  with 
the  mordant  very  long. 

The  acetate  of  alumina  is  made  either  by  dissolving  2 
quarts  of  alumina  in  paste,  in  1  quart  of  acetic  acid,  at  8° 
B.,  or  by  the  following  recipe  :  — 

In  3  quarts  of  Water,  dissolve 

4  lbs.  Sulphate  Alumina,  and  then 

6  lbs.  Sugar  of  Lead.     Let  settle,  and  use  the  clear 

liquor. 

Pinks  on  unprepared  Cotton 
are  produced  by  the  same  process  as  the  reds,  diluting  the 
color  with  Gum  Water,  acidified  with  a  little  Acetic  Acid. 

■Purples  on  unprepared  Cotton. 

1  quart  Madder  Extract, 

I  quart  Acetic  Acid,  8°  B., 

\  lb.  Olive  Oil,  are  cooked  together  for  some  time. 
The  Acetic  Acid  which  has  evaporated  must  be 
restored    by  fresh   acid,   and  the   whole  thickened 


THE    AMERICAX    DYER.  125 

with  1^  lbs.  Gum  Arabic  in  powder.     Immediately 

before  using,  add 
^Ib.  Iron  Liquor,  11°  B., 
|-  lb.  Arseniate  Soda,  at  6°  B. 

Lighter  shades  of  purple  are  produced  by  diluting  the 
color  with  sour  Gum  Water. 

Chocolate  on  unprepared  Cotton. 
2  quarts  Madder  Extract, 

2  quarts  Acetic  Acid, 

Cook.     Replace  what  Acetic  Acid  has  evaporated,  and 
thicken  with  Gum  Arabic,  and  when  coid,  add 

3  quarts  of  Acetate  Chrome,  17°  B. 

Chocolate  on  unprepared  Cotton. 
1    lb.         Madder  Extract, 

1  lb.  Acetic  Acid, 

2  ounces  Olive  Oil, 

2^  ounces  Wheat  Starch. 

Cook.     Replace  the  evaporated  Acetic  Acid,  and  when 

cold,  add 
2)\  ounces  Acetate  Chrome,  made  as  follows  : — 

Acetate  of  Chrome. 

4  ounces  Chrome  Alum, 
4  ounces  Sugar  of  Lead, 
\  pint       Water. 

Catechus  may  be  printed  at  the  same  time  with  ^Madder 
Extract,  by  any  of  the  processes  for  Steam  Catechus  ;  also 
the  following  pigment  colors  : — 

Blues. — Ultramarine,  with  Albumen  solution. 
Greens. — Guignet  Green,  with  Albumen  solution. 
Oran(/e.— Orange  pigment,  No.  29,  with  Albumen  solution. 


126  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

Blacks. — Logwood  Black,  by  this  recipe. 
b\  lbs.  British  Gum, 

3  quarts      Water, 

4  lbs.  Logwood  Liquor,  20°  B., 
18    ounces    Acetic  Acid,  6°  B., 

7f  lbs.  Acetate  Chrome,  17°  B., 

10    ounces     Chlorate  Potash,  dissolved  in 
3    gills  of    Water. 

Or  this. 
1|  lbs.    Logwood  Extract  (solid), 
1    pint   Acetic  Acid,  8°  B., 
1    pint    Olive  Oil, 
\    lb.      British  Gum, 
Cook  well ;  restore  the  acid  that  steams  off.     Just  before 

printing,  stir  in  well  1  pint  of  a  mixture  of 
I    pint     Acetate  Chrome,  16°  B., 
1    pint     Acetate  Iron,  No.  8.  •  (S.  B.) 

After  printing,  the  goods  are  steamed  1^  or  2  hours  at  a 
low  pressure,  say  15  lbs.  ;  then  washed,  and  soaped  in  a  soap- 
bath  at  125°  to  165°  F.  Again  washed  and  soaped  a  second 
time  if  necessary.  If  the  whites  are  not  satisfactory,  the 
goods  may  be  passed  through  a  weak  chemic. 

As  the  employment  of  Madder  Extract  is  of  very  recent 
introduction,  but  little  is  known  as  yet  of  the  capabilities  of 
this  process,  and  an  interesting  field  is  opened  for  intelligent 
experimentation.  It  will  be  observed  that  in  all  the  recipes, 
the  color  is  held  in  solution  by  Acetic  Acid,  but  it  is  equally 
soluble  in  Potash  or  Soda,  and  particularly  so  in  Ammonia 
Water.  In  this  case,  of  course.  Acetate  of  Alumina  coujd 
not  be  used  as  the  mordant  in  the  color,  but  the  goods  might 
be  padded  with  it  previous  to  printing.  It  is  also  soluble  in 
Gallipoli  oil,  3  lbs.  Extract  to  1  quart  of  Oil  and  1  lb.  of 
British  Gum.     With  this,  the  Acetate  of  Alumina,  could  of 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  127 

course  be  used  as  the  mordant.  Red  Prussiate  of  Potash 
with  the  Extract  produces  a  purple  and  Acetate  of  Uranium 
a  gray.  A  little  Pyrolignite  of  Iron,  deepens  the  Choco- 
lates. 

Since  the  above  was  written,  I  have  been  favored  with  the 
communication  of  the  experience  of  a  very  accomplished 
chemist,  Mr.  Spencer  Borden,  of  Fall  River,  with  regard  to 
the  use  of  Madder  Extract.  He  gives  the  following  recipes 
as  those  he  has  found  the  best : — 

Dark  Red  on  unprepared  Cloth. 

8    lbs.     Extract  of  Madder, 

4    pints  Acetic  Acid,  8°, 

2    pints  Water, 

1     pint   Acetate  of  Lime,  5°  T., 

If  lbs.    Starch. 

Cook,  and  when  cold,  replace  the  loss  by  evaporation 

with  Acetic  Acid  at  AP.    Then,  just  before  printing, 

add  \\  pints  Acetate  Alumina,  15°. 

Medium  Red  on  unprepared  Cloth. 

8  lbs.    Extract  of  Madder, 

4  pints  Acetic  Acid,  8°, 

5  pints  Gum  "Water  (6  lbs.  to  the  gallon). 
Manipulate  as  the  preceding,  and  add  the  same  amount 

of  mordant. 

Rale  Red  on  unprepared  Cloth. 

The  same  as  for  Medium  Red  reduced  to  the  shade  required 
with  Gum  Water. 

In  all  cases  the  Alumina  is  to  be  added  when  the  color  is 
quite  cold,  and  just  before  printing.  The  color  itself  will 
keep  good  for  weeks. 


128  TUE    AMERICAX    DYEK. 

Purples  on  unprepared  Cloth. 

8  lbs.       Madder  Extract, 
4  pints    Acetic  Acid,  8^, 
•   6  quarts  Giini  Water, 
1  pint      Acetate  Protoxide  Iron,  20°  T. 
Liirhter  shades  may  be  produced  by  diluting  with  Gura 
AVater.      Darker    shades    may    be    thickened    with 
Starch  instead  of  Gum. 
The   goods,  after  printing,  are  to  be  cooled.     Steam  for 
two  hours,  with  moist  steam  the  first  hour  and  a  half;  the 
last  half  hour  at  a  higher  pressure.     The  time  of  steaming 
however  is  of  more  importance  than  the  pressure. 

After  steaming,  wash  well,  soap  first  at  120°  F.,  and  a 
second  time  at  170°  F.     Gently  clear  aud  finish. 

The  Madcler  Extract  may  also  be  used  in  an  alkaline  solu- 
tion, if  the  cloth  is  first  prepared  with  the  mordant.     This  is 
done  as  follows  :  Pad  the  goods  in  a  mixture  of 
3  parts  of  Eed  Liquor,  5°  T., 
1  part  of  Acetate  Lime,  5°  T., 

Dry  well  and  pass  through  the  ageing  room  ;  then  print 
with  the  following  color: — 

Reds  and  Pinks  on  prepared  Cotton. 

U  lbs.  Madder  Extract, 

I     lb.  Saccharate  of  Soda  Solution, 

1    gallon  Water, 

1     lb.  White  Starch.     Cook. 

Or  tJiis. 
U  lbs.  Madder  Extract, 
6?r  lbs.   Soap  Solution. 
I'lb.      Starch.     Cook. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  129 


Saccharate  of  Soda  Solution. 

Boil  together  1  pint   Caustic  Soda,  58°  T., 
1  quart  "Water, 
\\  lbs.  Browu  Sugar, 
uutil  all  the  susjar  be  dissolved. 

Soap  Solution. 

Dissolve  1  lb.         ordinary  Soap, 
iu  1  gallon   Water. 


ARTIFICIAL   ALIZARIXE. 

It  is  scarcely  more  than  four  years  ago  that  the  chemical 
world  was  surprised  by  the  announcement  that  two  chemists 
of  Berlin,  Mfessrs.  Grrebe  and  Liebermann,  had  succeeded  in 
forming  alizarine  out  of  some  of  the  products  of  coal-tar. 
The  announcement  was  received  at  first  with  incredulity,  but 
it  soon  became  recognized  as  an  established  fact,  that  this 
substance,  hitherto  found  only  in  madder  and  some  of  its 
cognate  plants,  could  really  be  produced  iu  the  laboratory  of 
the  chemist.  It  was  not  supposed  at  first  that  this  discovery 
would  have  any  practical  value,  but  that  the  artificial  aliza- 
rine would  remain  for  a  long  time  a  mere  chemical  curiosity. 
Such,  however,  has  not  proved  to  be  the  fact.  It  is  now 
manufactured  on  a  commercial  scale  by  some  half-dozen 
houses,  and  is  offered  in  the  market  at  such  prices  as  to  com- 
pete, it  is  daitnedy  successfully,  with  the  natural  extracts  of 
madder. 

,  Dr.  Grothe,  in  the  "  Muster  Zeitung,"  recommends  the  fol- 
lowing recipes  for  printing  with  it.  It  will  be  observed  that 
they  differ  from  the  recipes  for  madder  extract,  chiefly  in  the 
fact  that  the  alizarine  paste  is  not  cooked  with  the  thickening, 
but  is  added  afterwards,  and  at  the  same  time  with  the  alum- 
inous mordant;  and  also,  that  no  directions  are  given  for 
17 


130  THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 

restoring  the  acetic  acid  that  evaporates  in  the  cooking.  It 
is  not  probable  that  this  will  prove  to  be  any  improvement ; 
but  each  printer  must  determine,  by  his  own  experience, 
which  mode  of  mixing  is  the  best. 

Reds. 
5  lbs.  Alizarine  paste, 
16  lbs.  Thickening, 
1  lb.     Acetate  of  Alumina,  10-  B., 
\  lb.  Acetate  of  Lime,  16^  B. 

Pinks. 

The  same,  diluted  with  2  or  3  parts  Thickening. 

For  double  printing,  when  deep  red  is  printed  on  first,  the 
o"oods  must  be  steamed  one  hour,  before  the  second  printing 
takes  place.  After  the  second  printing,  the  goods  must  be 
again  steamed  one  hour,  and  hung  up  to  air.  After  hanging 
24  hours,  they  are  to  be  passed  through  either  of  the  follow- 
ing baths : 

250  gallons    Water, 
60  lbs.         Chalk, 
3  lbs.         Salts  of  Tin. 

Or  this. 
250  gallons   Water, 
40  lbs.         Chalk, 
10  lbs.         Arseniate  Soda. 
The  bath  must  be  at  a  temperature  of  120^  to  140^  F.,  and 
the  goods  stay  in  the  bath   1  to   li^  minutes.     They  are  then 
washed,  and  afterwards  brightened  as  follows  : 

Par  10 j[)ieces^  fifty  yards  each. 
1st  Soaping,  3  lbs.  Soap,  \  lb.  Salts  Tin,  122^  F.,  \  hour, 
2d         "         3  lbs.  Soap,  no  Salts  Tin,  167°  F.,  \  hour, 
3d         "         31bs.  Soap, no  Salts  Tin,  170°  to  177 -"F.,i  hour. 
Wash  between  each  soaping. 


THE    AMEiaCAX   DYER.  131 

Thickening  fcr  Reds. 
12  lbs.       Wheat  Starch, 
20  quarts  Water, 

4  quarts  Acetic  Acid,  G^  B., 
10  quarts  Tragacanth  Mucilage  (2  ouuces  to  quart), 

3  lbs.       Olive  Oil.     Cook.'' 

Acetate  of  Alumina. 
30  lbs.        Hydrate  of  Alumina,  are  stirred  into 
6  c[uarts  Acetic  Acid,  warmed  and  filtered,  and  reduced 
to  the  required  degree. 
■    It  will  generally  be  found  necessary  to  employ  an  amount 
of  Acetate   of  Alumina,  at  12*^  B.,  equal  to  20  per  cent,  of 
the  weight  of  the  Alizarine  paste. 

Hydrate  of  Alumina. 
72  lbs.    Alum,  in  100  gallons  Water, 
are  precipitated  with 

62  lbs.    Soda,  in  100  gallons  Water. 
The  precipitate  is  washed  8  times  by  decautatiou,  collected 
on  a  filter,  and  squeezed  out. 

Acetate  of  Lime  Solution. 
A  solution  of  Acetate  of  Lime,  at  16^  B.,  contains  25  per 
cent,  of  Acetate  of  Lime.  Generally  an  amount  of  the  solu- 
tion equal  to  10  per  cent,  of  the  Alizarine  paste  is  required  in 
the  color.  But  it  is  well,  with  every  new  lot  of  Alizarine,  to 
try,  on  a  small  scale,  how  much  Acetate  of  Lime  it  requires, 
before  using  it  for  printing. 

Red  for  Mosiacs  {Mille-fleurs) . 
8  lbs.       Alizarine  paste, 
10  quarts  Thickening, 
^\  oz.       Kitrate  Alumina,  15^  B., 
'        19  oz.        Acetate  Alumina,  10°  B., 
13  oz.         Acetate  Lime,  16°  B. 


132  THE    AMEKICAK   DYER. 

Veiy  Deep  lied, 
10  lbs.       Alizarine  paste, 
10  quarts  Thickening, 
13  oz.        Nitrate  Alumina,  15°  B., 
19  oz.        Acetate  Alumina,  10°  B., 
16  oz.        Acetate  Lime,  16°  B. 

J^itrate  of  Alumina. 

2  lbs.       Nitrate  Lead, 

2  lbs.       Alum, 

2  quarts  Water. 

With  Nitrate  of  Alumina  the  Red  is  more  yellow  than 
with  the  Acetate  ;  and  when  Nitrate  is  employed,  an 
increased  quantity  of  Acetate  of  Lime  must  be  used. 

Another  Red  ivithout  Oil. 
8i^  lbs.  Alizarine  paste, 
^  lbs.  Acetic  Acid,  8°  B., 
31  lbs.  Flour, 

5  pints  Water. 

Cook  well ;  stir  till  cold,  and  then  add 

1  lb.      Acetate  Lime,  16°  B., 

2  lbs.    Nitrate  Alumina,  15°  B., 

3  lbs.    Hyposulphite  Lime,  9°  B. 

Purples, 
3  lbs.       Alizarine  paste, 
10  quarts  Purple  Thickening, 

6  oz.        Pyrolignite  Iron,  12°  B., 
12  oz.         Acetate  Lime,  16°  B. 

• 

Purple  Thickening. 
10  lbs.        Starch, 
18  quarts  Water, 
9  quarts  Tragacanth  Mucilage  (2  oz.  to  quart), 


THE    AMERICAIN^   DYER.  133 

3  quarts  Acetic  Acid,  6*^  B., 

2  lbs.       Olive  Oil. 

Cook  well,  and  stir  till  cold. 
The  goods  are  steamed  1  to  2  hours  at  8  lbs.,  and  then 
hung  to  air  24  to  26  hours.  They  are  then  passed  in  a  pad- 
ding machine  through  the  chalk  and  arseniate  bath,  the  same 
as  for  Reds;  washed  and  soaped,  once  only,  without  any  tin 
in  the  soap-bath.  If  necessary,  they  may  be  lightly  chemicked 
after  soaping. 


WOOL-SCOURING. 
The  first  operation  in  dyeing  is  the  scouring  of  the  wool, 
and  this  is  an  operation  that  requires  as  much  attention,  if  not 
more,  than  any  subsequent  one  in  .the  art  of  woolen-dyeing  ; 
yet  it  is  the  most  neglected.  If  the  wool  is  properly  cleansed, 
we  can  produce  better  and  more  brilliant  colors  than  we  can 
if  it  is  but  half  scoured.  This,  any  intelligent  and  skilful  dyer 
will  admit ;  but  we  must  say  that  a  greater  number  of  the  dyers 
will  assert,  that  there  is  not  so  much  need  of  having  the  wool 
perfectly  clean  for  dark  colors  as  it  is  for  the  light  shades,  or  for 
the  blue-vat.  This  is  a  very  erroneous  idea,  and  there  is  no  rea- 
son whatever  for  such  a  distinction.  The  wool  cannot  be  got 
too  clean  for  any  of  the  colors  ;  and  we  wish  to  impress  it 
forcibly  upon  the  attention  of  not  only  the  dyer,  but  also  the 
manufacturer,  to  see  that  the  wool  is  perfectly  clean  for  all 
shades  and  colors.  How  often  do  we  hear  complaints  from 
the  carder  that  his  cards  gum  up;  that  he  has  to  have  them 
cleaned  twice  a  day  ;  that  he  has  to  clean  his  burr-picker  four 
to  six  times  in  picking  a  thousand  pounds,  when  all  the  cause 
of  this  trouble  and  work  is  the  uncleanliness  of  the  wool ;  and 
when  the  cloth  which  is  manufactured  from  such  wool  is  fulled 
and  scoured,  the  dyer  finds  that  his  colors  have  riui,  which  he 
lays  to  the  finisher,  and  says  that  he  uses  too  strong  soap, 
&c.,  &c.,  when  all  the  fault  lies  at  his  own  door,  on  account 


184  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

of  his  iiecrlisrence  in  not  havMng  the  wool  scoured  clean.  When- 
ever  dyers  will  be  more  particular  in  regard  to  cleaning  their 
wool  before  coloring  it,  and  use  the  proper  coloring  materials 
(those  kinds  that  give  the  most  permanent  colors),  we  shall 
not  hear  so  much  about  the  finisher  allowing  the  use  of  soaps 
too  strongly  alkaline  for  fulling,  and  so  much  about  his  de- 
stroying the  colors,  &c.  If  the  wool  is  perfectly  clean,  the 
coloring-matter  of  such  dyestuffas  is  used  to  produce  the  color, 
will  have  a  chance  to  penetrate  the  fibre  of  the  wool,  thereby 
causing  it  to  be  more  permanentl}'  fixed  ;  but  if  the  wool  is 
unclean,  the  color  is  only  fixed  superfluousl}'  upon  the  outside 
of  the  fibre,  and  not  within  it.  We  will  admit  that  a  color 
can  be  made  to  look  very  well  upon  wool  that  is  not  perfectly 
clean  ;  but  let  us  follow  this  unclean  wool  through  the  process 
of  manufacturing  it  into  cloth.  In  the  first  place,  it  will  cord 
and  spin  bad.  It  will  require  more  oil  than  clean  wool,  to 
overcome  the  adhesivness  of  the  greasy,  paste-like  substance 
left  upon  it  before  it  was  colored,  which,  by  the  boiling  it  gets 
in  the  operation  of  coloring,  causes  this  pasty  matter  to 
adhere  more  firmly  to  the  wool.  There  is  also  a  greater  loss 
by  waste  than  there  M'ould  be  if  the  wool  was  clean.  In  spin- 
ning it  will  break  oftener ;  it  will  not  draw  out,  or  make  so 
fine,  even,  or  strong  yarn. 

But  the  worst  of  all  the  bad  efi'ects  unclean  wool  has  is, 
that  when  the  cloth  made  from  it  comes  to  the  finishing-room 
to  be  fulled  and  scoured,  it  can  hardly  be  scoured  clean  ;  and 
if  it  is  got  perfectly  clean,  it  is  done  by  using  a  scour-liquor 
of  such  an  alkaline  strength  as  not  only  to  injure  the  texture 
of  the  cloth,  but  to  nearly  destroy  the  color;  and  what  is  left 
of  the  color,  after  the  cloth  has  been  cleansed,  is  lifeless  and 
poor ;  but  for  all  this  the  dyer  will  curse  the  finisher,  because 
the  colors  do  not  stand,  and  look  as  they  were  expected  to. 

The  above  enumerated  evils,  in  not  having  the  wool  clean 
to  commence  with,  are  enough,  without  naming  others,  to 
show  how  essential  it  is  to  have  the  w oo\  jyerfectltj  dean  before 
it  leaves  the  dye-house,  or  the  dyer  attempts  to  color  it.     It 


THE    AMERICAX   DYER.  135 

is  for  the  interest  of  tlie  dyer  to  attend  particularly  to  the 
cleansing  of  the  wool,  so  that  he  may  have  a  perfectly  clean 
ground  on  which  to  fa.sten  his  colors,  for  upon  unclean  wool 
it  is  impossible  to  produce  a  clear,  bright  and  permanent 
color.  If  the  wool  is  clean,  his  colors  will  be  bright,  and  all 
the  operations  of  manufacturing  it  into  cloth  will  have  a  ten- 
dency to  improve  the  beauty  and  lustre  of  the  colors  and 
fabric. 

Every  dyer,  as  a  general  thing,  has  his  own  particular 
method  of  scouring  the  wool,  some  using  soda-ash  and  salt, 
others,  sal-ammoniac  and  the  different  patent  wool-cleansin<y 
detergents  or  compounds  ;  but  no  matter  how  or  by  what  proc- 
ess you  scour  the  wool,  only  get  it  perfectly  dean,  and  not 
use  so  strong  an  alkali  as  to  cause  the  wool  to  feel  harsh  and 
sticky  to  the  hand,  but  have  it  feel  soft  and  buoyant,  and  when 
it  is  shaken  up  it  will  fall  apart  loose  and  feathery,  having  no 
smell  of  the  sheep  about  it.  Therefore  we  will  not  dictate  to 
the  dyer  in  this  matter,  but  will  merely  give  one  or  two  recipes 
for  making  scouring  liquor,  Avhich  we  have  used,  and  know 
them  to  be  better  than  all  the  patent  cleansing  compounds 
extant. 

Uriate  Scouring  Liquor. 
25  lbs.         Soda-ash, 

2  lbs.        Borax, 
15  lbs.         Coarse  Salt, 
2  gallons  Aqua  Ammonia. 

Put  the  three  first  substances  into  a  barrel  holding  42  gal- 
Ions,  fill  half  full  of  water,  boil  until  all  is  dissolved,  then  fill 
the  barrel  up  with  cold  water,  and  add  the  ammonia,  and  keep 
it  covered  up,  in  order  that  the  ammonia  may  not  evaporate. 
Use  one  quart  of  this  for  every  50  lbs.  of  wool. 

In  setting  a  new  scour,  use  4  gallons  of  the  solution. 

Another. 
Dissolve  20  lbs.  of  o;nano  in  a  42-<T:allon  barrel  of  boiling 
water,  then  add  15  lbs.  soda-ash,  stir  until  it  is  dissolved. 


136  THE    AMERICAN    DYEE. 

To  start  a  fresh  Scour. 
For  every  100  gallons  of  water  that  the  scour-tub  will  hold, 
add  5  lbs.  soda-ash,  and  2  quarts  of  soap,  and  1  quart  of  the 
guano  liquor.     Then  for  every  50  lbs.  of  wool  after  the  first, 
use  1  quart  of  the  guano  liquor. 


SCOURING  THE  CLOTH  FOR  PIECE-DYEING. 

The  pieces  should  be  thoroughly  scoured,  after  fulling,  be- 
fore they  are  sent  to  the  dyer,  otherwise,  after  they  are  colored, 
the}'  will  be  cloudy.  Yet  we  have  known  cases  where  the 
colors  were,  more  or  less  cloudy,  when  the}'  were  perfectly 
clean;  in  this  case  the  fault  was  in  the  manipulation  of  the 
pieces  in  the  dyeing  operations,  for  which  the  dyer  is  to 
blame.  We  were  once  called  to  a  mill  in  Worcester,  Mass., 
to  ascertain  the  cause  of  all  their  pieces  being  cloudy.  Upon 
invcstigiiiion,  we  found  that  the  dyer  was  so  far  behind  the 
fuller,  that  the  pieces  were  piled  up  after  they  had  been 
scoured,  some  of  them  having  been  scoured  some  two  weeks 
previous  (this  was  in  the  hot  season),  and  had  become  rail- 
dewed  and  sour.  The  cloudiness  was  laid  to  the  fuller,  he  not 
having  scoured  them  properly,  &c.,  but  the  fault  was  in  the 
dyer  not  coloring  them  sooner.  We  will  here  give  our  views 
in  regard  to  fulling  and  scouring  pieces  to  be  dyed  any  or  all 
colors.  After  the  cloths  have  been  fulled  to  their  proper  width, 
scour  them  with  soap  for  thirty  minutes,  then  turn  on  warm 
water  for  about  twenty  minutes,  which  will  in?ure  the  start- 
ing up  of  the  fulling  soap,  and  creating  a  good  lather.  After 
which,  turn  on  the  cold  water,  and  let  it  run  until  it  is  clear 
as  the  cloth  runs  through  the  rolls.  In  regard  to  the  kind 
and  amount  of  soap  to  be  used,  every  fuller  and  finisher  has 
his  own  particular  views,  and  no  doubt  thinks  that  the  soap 
he  uses,  and  the  amount,  is  the  very  best,  for  which  reason  we 


THE    AMERICAN    DYEE.  137 

will  not  attempt  to  state  our  own  particular  views  in  relation 
to  the  soap  or  amount  of  it  to  be  used,  but  will  merely  say 
that  no  matter  whose  make  you  use,  be  sure  that  it  is  all 
washed  out  from  the  cloth  before  it  is  sent  to  the  dye-house. 

After  the  pieces  are  thoroughly  scoured,  they  should  be 
well  gigged  on  a  dry  gig,  then  they  should  be  croj)ped  on  the 
shears,  and  if  they  are  not  required  to  have  a  lustre  on  them, 
they  are  ready  for  the  dyer.  But  otherwise,  they  should  be 
rolled  up  on  rollers  and  steamed,  by  being  laid  horizontal  in 
the  steam-box,  then  cold  water  run  into  it  and  the  steam 
turned  on.  Boil  them  from  four  to  six  hours,  draw  off  the 
water,  and  take  out  the  rolls,  stand  them  on  the  end,  and  leave 
them  until  the  cloth  is  cold  ;  then  take  them  off  the  rolls,  run 
them  once  over  the  gig,  and  again  roll  them  up,  with  the  out- 
side end  of  piece  (previously)  next  to  the  roller,  then  steam 
as  before.  Perform  this  operation  four  or  six  times,  revers- 
ing the  end  of  the  piece  each  time. 

After  the  pieces  are  colored,  they  should  be  washed  thor- 
oughly with  fuller's  earth  and  water,  in  order  to  prevent  their 
crocking.  If  the  cloth  is  not  cropped  previous  to  being 
colored,  the  najo  will  act  as  a  filter  to  the  color,  and  prevent 
the  color  from  penetrating  the  cloth  ;  consequently,  when  the 
nap  is  afterwards  cut  off,  the  color  is  much  lighter  than  ex- 
pected or  required,  the  best  part  of  the  color  being  taken  off 
with  the  nap. 

The  earnest  attention  of  the  dyer  is  called  to  the  al)ove 
observations,  and  we  would  recommend  him  to  study  them 
thoroughly.  The  essential  point  to  be  observed  in  piece- 
dyeing  is  of  as  much  consequence  to  the  manufacturer  as  it  is 
to  the  dyer,  and  it  is  his  peculiar  perogative,  or  that  of  the 
superintendent,  to  see  that  the  pieces  are  delivered  to  the 
dyer  in  the  very  best  possible  condition  for  taking  the  color, 
of  which  condition  the  dyer  is  the  only  competent  or  legitimate 
judge.  It  is  a  duty  that  the  dyer  owes  to  himself,  to  his  char- 
acter and  reputation  as  a  skilful  dyer,  to  insist  upon  those 
conditions    being   complied    Avith   and   fulfilled  at  all  times, 

18 


138  THE    AMERICAX   DYER. 

which  he  considers  so  indispensable  to  the  ease  and  certainty 
of  producing  permanent  and  brilliant  colors  upon  the  goods ; 
and  it  is  for  the  interest  of  the  manufactnrer  to  sustain  him  at 
all  times  in  these  just  and  reasonable  demands,  b}'  seeing  that 
the  pieces  are  given  to  the  dyer  in  the  condition  he  requires. 

When  all  these  conditions  which  the  dyer  requires  are  com- 
plied with,  all  other  persons  will  be  exonerated  from  blame 
for  any  mismanagement  that  might  happen  in  the  coloring  of 
the  pieces. 

"We  reiterate  the  conditions  the  dyer  should  insist  on  being 
complied  with  :  1st,  that  the  pieces  are  effectually  fulled  and 
scoured,  and  completely  free  from  grease  and  soap ;  then 
entirely  raised  and  gigged  ;  well  cropped  down.  These  condi- 
tions are  essentially  the  best  in  which  the  cloth  can  be  placed 
in  order  to  imbibe  the  color,  and  the  dyer  should  not  allow 
any  of  them  to  be  neglected  or  dispensed  with. 


TREATMENT  OF  THE  COLORS  AFTER  DYEING, 

OR 

THE  FULLING  AND  SCOURING  PROCESS. 

The  fulling  and  scouring  of  cloth  containing  fancy  colors, 
does  not  have  the  attention  given  to  it  in  comparison  to  its 
importance. 

It  is  of  little  use  for  the  dyer  to  exert  his  skill,  and  exhaust 
his  care  and  patience  to  produce  the  best  and  most  permanent 
colors,  if  they  are  afterwards  to  be  spoiled,  or  nearly  de- 
stroyed, through  the  ignorance  or  carelessness  of  those  who 
may  have  the  charge  of  the  fulling  and  scouring.  We  are  all 
aware  that  colors  are  not  unchangeable ;  but  most,  and  we 
might  say  all  of  them  are  very  susceptible  of  change  or  altera- 
tion by  the  action  of  different  operations  and  substances,  as 
well  as  by  heat  and  light,  and  we  are  not  always  to  look  at 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  139 

wliat  the  color  is  when  it  leaves  the  d^'e-honse,  hut  whut  it 
will  be  when  the  cloth  is  finished  and  ready  for  the  market. 

There  is  no  part  of  the  manufactnring  of  the  fabric  that  is 
so  injurious  as  the  operation  of  fulling  and  scouring  the  woven 
fabric,  and  it  is  upon  this  particular  process  that  we  wish  to 
comment;  for  the  most  injury  to  colors  can  be  always  traced 
to  the  fulling  and  scouring.  We  do  not  mean  to  say  that  the 
operation  of  gigging  will  not  impair  the  colors;  hard  gigging 
will  often  strip  the  color.  We  know  that  the  operation  of 
fulling  will  impair  the  color  by  the  heat  and  friction  caused  by 
this  operation,  independent  of  anything  else,  and  from  the 
eiSects  of  this  the  finisher  should  be  exonerated  from  all  blame. 
Too  hard  or  too  heavy  steaming  will  injure  colors,  especially 
such  colors  as  chemic  greens,  and  a  number  of  the  aniline  col- 
ors. But  it  is  the  injudicious  use  of  alkalies  and  strong 
alkaline  soaps  that  are  often  used  for  fulling  and  scouring, 
that  have  the  most  destructive  effects  upon  colors,  and  for  this 
the  person  who  has  the  charge  of  the  finishing  is  in  the  great- 
est measure  responsible.  Soap  that  contains  an  excess  of 
alkali  will  not  only  change  the  hue,  but,  by  the  heat  and 
caustic  nature  of  those  articles,  will  dissolve  a  portion  of  any 
color  we  may  place  upon  wool  or  cotton  (but  more  par- 
ticularly colors  upon  cotton),  and,  in  most  cases,  will  entirely 
destroy  them.  These  destructive  effects  can  be  obviated,  and 
it  is  an  imperative  duty  of  the  overseer  of  finishing,  as  well  as 
the  superintendents,  to  see  that  these  effects  are  avoided.  We 
have  known  such  an  excess  of  soda-ash  being  used  in  the 
scouring-soap,  that  not  only  were  fancy  colors  completely 
destroyed,  but  chrome-blacks  were  changed  to  a  deep  plum- 
color.  The  great  fault  of  fullers  is  in  making  sti'ong  alkaline 
solutions  for  scouring  out  the  goods  after  they  have  been 
fulled  ;  but  the  idea  is  an  erroneous  one,  and  no  intelligent 
fuller  would  do  it,  as  a  weak  soap  will  scour  out  all  the  grease 
or  oil  there  is  in  them  just  as  well,  and  better,  than  a  strong 
alkaline  soap ;  besides,  the  weaker  soap  will  leave  the  goods 
in  a  softer  and  more  pliable  state,  and   the   colors   will   be 


140  THE    AMERICAN   DYEK. 

brio'hter  and  clearer.  The  alkali  used  in  scourino^  should  be 
of  just  strength  enough  to  combine  with  the  soap  that  was 
used  to  full  the  cloth  and  start  the  oil  used  for  the  previous 
operation  of  carding,  and  anything  more  than  that  is  a  waste 
of  alkali,  and  an  injury  to  the  fabric  and  color. 

An  alkaline  soap  of  uniform  strength  should  at  all  times  be 
maintained,  and  is  at  all  times  required  ;  also,  one  kind  of 
soap  should  be  purchased,  and  then  the  fulling  and  scouring 
will  be  done  with  ease,  certainty,  and  economy,  and  the 
preservation  of  the  colors  will  always  be  insured. 

In  making  scouring  solutions,  the  overseer  of  the  finishing 
should  always  see  that  each  making  is  of  the  same  strength 
as  the  previous  one  (which  is  easily  ascertained  by  using  a 
thermometer),  and  when  using  it,  he  should  be  sure  that  it 
is  always  of  the  same  temperature  as  regards  heat,  for  the 
higher  the  temperature  is,  the  more  will  the  colors  be  injured, 
besides  causino;  the  cloth  to  feel  more  harsh. 

As  regards  the  fulling  soaps,  there  are  two  things  very 
essentially  necessary  in  their  combinations. 

I^irsf.     A  perfect  freedom  from  all  uucombined  alkali. 

Second.  A  uniformity  of  composition  in  the  given  quanti- 
ties of  its  constituent  parts,  in  each  and  every  separate  mak- 
ing. 

There  is  not  only  a  difference  in  soaps  made  by  different 
soap  manufacturers,  but  in  soaps  made  at  different  times  by 
the  same  manufacturer,  which  is  the  cause  of  some  of  the  difii- 
cultles  the  fuller  has  to  contend  with.  The  cause  of  these 
differences  in  soaps  originates  from  the  fact  that  there  are  but 
few  soap-makers  that  know  what  kind  of  soap  is  wanted  for 
fulling  and  scouring  purposes,  or  how  to  combine  the  alkali 
with  the  fatty  matters  they  employ,  in  a  just  and  chemical 
proportion.  Neither  are  they  aware  that  uniformity  of  the 
soap  is  indispensably  requisite  in  order  to  produce  the  same 
effects  and  results  at  different  and  distant  times. 

There  is  but  one  soap  manufactory  that  we  know  of,  that 
steadily  and  systematically  adheres  to  the  above-mentioned 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  141 

requisites  in  making  soaps  for  fulling  and  scouring  cloth, 
either  in  the  white,  for  piece-dyeing,  or  for  cloth  of  ditlerent 
colors,  and  that  is  the  Holbrook  Manufacturing  Company  of 
New  York,  62  Church  Street,  they  being  qualified,  both  by 
information  and  large  experience,  to  make  an  article  of  soap 
that  will  answer  all  the  requirements  of  this  branch  of  manu- 
facturing cloth,  their  soaps  being  always  uniform;  and  the 
alkalies  employed  are  so  blended,  neutralized,  and  combined 
with  the  oily  or  fatty  substances  used  in  making  their  differ- 
ent kinds  of  soap,  that  it  is  almost  an  impossibility  for 
them  to  injure  the  most  delicate  color.  Their  soaps  are 
exceedingly  well  adapted  for  fulling  and  scouring  colors 
made  from  the  different  aniline  dyes  ;  and  we  have  often 
heard  finishers  assert  that  .  they  never  used  so  good  a 
soap  for  fulling  and  scouring  purposes,  and  thiit  they 
would  use  no  other  if  it  were  possible  to  get  theirs,  for  it 
always  came  to  them  of  the  same  quality  and  uniformity, 
and  that  it  left  the  goods  in  a  softer  and  more  pliable  condi- 
tion than  it  was  possible  for  a  greater  part  of  the  fulling  soaps 
uow  offered  in  the  markets.  Their  increased  sales  prove  their 
popularity  and  the  high  esteem  in  which  they  are  held  by  our 
best  manufacturers. 


MANUAL  OF  OPERATIONS  IN  THE  DYE-HOUSE. 

Every  dyer  having  his  own  particular  method  or  way  of 
doing  work  in  the  dye-house,  what  we  may  say  in  regard  to 
the  operations  will  perhaps  be  of  no  account ;  yet  we  should 
not  feel  as  if  this  work  were  complete  unless  there  was  some- 
thing said  upon  the  manipulations  of  the  dye-house.  In  the 
first  place,  have  the  wool  scoured  clean  (see  article  on  wool- 
scouring)  the  day  before  it  is  to  be  colored,  so  that  it  may 
drain  well  and  evenly  ;  then  shake  it  up  loosely  in  front  of  the 
tub  in  which  it  is  to  be  dyed,  pulling  apart  all  the  hard  and 
twisted  lumps,  so  that  it  may  take  the  color  evenly  when  it  is 


142  THE    AMERICAX    DYEE. 

thrown  into  the  tub  or  vat ;  leave  the  tub  low  enough  in 
water,  so  that  after  the  dyestufls  have  boiletl  the  proper  length 
of  time  you  can  run  in  water  enough  to  cool  it  down  to  170° 
or  150"^  Fahr.,  at  which  heat  we  think  it  best  to  commence 
coloring  any  color;  and,  if  on  cloth,  at  a  lower  temperature 
than  that ;  then  throw  in  the  wool  loosely,  expeditiously 
get  in  the  poles  and  pole  it  well  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes, 
turn  on  the  steam  and  bring  it  to  a  boil  as  soon  as  possible, 
which  continue  for  one  hour  or  one  hour  and  a  half,  or  as  the 
recipes  specify.  Do  not  boil  the  wool  too  hard,  but  give  it 
steam  enough  to  keep  it  on  the  sjyring  of  the  boil  only.  After 
it  has  boiled  three-fourths  of  an  hour,  put  the  poles  in  again 
and  pole  it  enough  to  change  the  position  of  the  wool  a  little, 
which  will  prevent  it  from  stringing  or  twisting.  If  the  color 
is  one  that  requires  saddening,  put  such  chemical  salts  as  you 
intend  to  sadden  with  into  a  barrel  or  some  convenient  ves- 
sel, pour  some  of  the  liquor  from  the  dye-tub  into  it  to  dis- 
solve the  salts  ;  after  they  are  all  dissolved,  throw  it  on  slowly, 
a  little  at  a  time,  while  the  men  are  poling  it  up.  We  think 
this  is  a  better  plan  than  to  throw  it  on  in  the  solid  state,  as 
you  can  get  the  saddening  on  more  evenly  by  having  the  salts 
in  solution. 

In  making  colors  that  are  prepared,  or  when  the  mordant 
is  put  on  before  the  coloring-matter,  they  should  be  prepared 
in  the  afternoon,  so  that  it  may  have  time  to  lie  a  few  hours 
in  the  prei)aration-liquor  before  it  is  drawn  off.  It  is  more 
important  that  the  wool  should  lie  in  the  preparation-liquor 
a  longer  time  than  in  the  coloring-matter.  It  was  formerly 
the  universal  practice  to  wash  the  wool  after  was  prepared, 
before  entering  it  into  the  dyeing-bath,  but  we  do  not  think 
it  absolutely  necessary,  provided  the  wool  has  had  a  chance 
to  drain  well  before  it  is  thrown  into  the  djeing-liquor ;  yet 
it  would  be  an  excellent  plan  to  extract  the  wet  portions  of 
the  wool  before  coloring  it.  After  it  is  prepared  it  should  be 
again  shaken  up  before  putting  it  into  the  coloring-liquor,  the 
same  as  for  the  first  process.     After  the  wool  is  colored  it 


THE    AMERICAN   DYEE.  143 

should  be  washed  off  in  the  rinse-box,  if  it  is  possible  to  do 
so  ;  but  do  not  let  it  roll  around  iu  the  box  much,  as  it 
strings  or  felts  the  wool,  which  causes  it  to  card  badly. 

There  are  no  rules  without  some  exceptions ;  therefore  any 
variations  from  the  plans  generally  adopted  in  dye-houses 
you  will  tind  specified  in  the  recipes  requiring  such  deviations. 


ON  THE  TREATMENT  OF  THE  DYESTUFFS  IN  THE 

DYE-TUBS. 

The  dyestuflfs  come  to  the  dyer  either  in  a  chipped  or 
ground  condition,  and  the  economy  of  dyeing  depends  upon 
the  treatment  they  receive  to  extract  all  the  coloring-matter' 
from  them  ;  and  to  do  that  we  should,  in  the  first  place,  after 
the  tubs  or  kettles  are  emptied,  see  that  they  are  cleaned  out 
and  washed,  in  order  that  no  remains  of  the  former  dye  are  left 
in  it,  as  any  portion  of  the  metallic  salts,  alum,  &c.,  have  a 
tendency  to  prevent  the  coloring-matter  of  the  dyestulTs 
being  extracted,  and  especially  from  the  hard,  resinous  woods, 
such  as  camwood,  barwood,  sanders,  &c.,  which  refuse  to 
give  out  all  their  color  if  ever  so  little  of  these  salts  are  in 
solution  in  the  liquor.  Next,  use  the  coarsest  bagging  you 
can  get  for  boiling  out  the  chipped  dyewoods ;  do  not  put  too 
much  into  them,  nor  have  them  tied  too  far  from  the  end,  but 
leave  all  the  space  in  the  bags  that  you  can,  so  that  the 
inclosed  chips  can  change  their  position  by  the  boil ;  suspend 
the  bags  on  a  stick  laid  across  the  dye-tub.  If  you  have  a 
color  that  should  require  nothing  but  ground  dyestufis,  boil 
them  out  in  a  separate  vessel  —  a  barrel,  for  instance  —  and 
take  the  clear  solution  and  put  it  into  the  dye-tub  ;  half  an 
hour's  boil  is  suflacient  for  the  ground  woods  ;  should  you  not 
have  the  convenience  for  boiling  them  out,  then  throw  them 
into  the  dye-tub  loose,  but  do  not  put  them  into  bags,  because 
they  will  be  so  solid  and  compact  in  the  bags  that  it  will  be 


144  THE   A3IERIUAX   DYER. 

almost  an  impossibility  to  extract  the  coloring  matter  from 
them. 

If  you  are  making  a  dye  that  requires  both  chipped  and 
ground  dyestuffs,  you  can  then  mix  them  together  and  boil 
them  in  bags,  but  in  this  case  it  will  take  more  of  the  ground 
dyestuff  than  it  would  if  they  were  thrown  loose  into  the  tub ; 
by  mixing  the  ground  with  the  chipped,  or  |)oiling  out,  as 
above,  you  have  the  advantage  of  your  wool  being  clean  and 
free  from  dust. 

We*  have  often  sprinkled  the  ground  woods  upon  the  wool 
before  entering  it  into  the  dye-tub,  that  is,  such  as  camwood, 
barwood,  and  sanders ;  you  can  adopt  either  of  the  above 
plans.  The  right  plan,  however,  is  to  have  no  loose  dyestuffs 
in  the  tub  if  it  is  possible  to  avoid  it,  as  it  gets  among  the 
wool,  it  fills  up  the  cards,  and  it  will  not  card  or  spin  as  well 
as  it  would  if  we  kept  the  ground  dyewoods  out,  for  which 
reason  we  prefer  the  boiling  out  of  these  woods  in  a  separate 
vessel  and  using  the  clear  solution  ;  but  this  plan  is  not  always 
practicable  ;  but  in  all  cases,  if  it  is  possible,  have  the  coloring 
solutions  a  clear  aqueous  tincture  of  the  coloring  matter  only. 

If  you  should  have  a  color  that  is  done  by  one  operation, 
that  is,  a  color  that  requires  the  coloring  matter  and  the  mor- 
dant to  be  all  in  one  bath,  you  must  boil  out  the  dyestuffs 
first,  then  dissolve  such  chemical  salts  as  you  intend  to  use, 
in  a  pail,  and  pour  it  into  the  tub,  then  throw  in  the  wool 
and  pole  up  as  soon  as  possible,  putting  on  the  steam  and 
bringing  to  a  boil  as  quickly  as  can  be. 

Lastly,  in  preparation-colors,  when  the  chemical  salts  are 
employed  as  the  mordant,  all  that  is  required  is  to  dissolve 
them  in  a  pail,  or  throw  them  into  the  tub  and  boil  until  you 
think  they  are  dissolved.  Any  variation  from  the  above 
plans  you  will  find  stated  in  the  recipes  requiring  it. 

One  hour  and  a  half  boiling  is  all  that  is  required  for  the 
chipped  dyestuffs  ;  but  if  you  have  ground  and  chipped  mixed 
in  the  bags,  then  boil  them  two  hours. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  145 


THE  DIFFERENT  PROCESSES   OF  DYEING. 

"  There  are  but  three  general  methods  or  processes  of  dye- 
ing wool  or  woolen  goods  (in  cotton-yarn  dyeing  the  same 
methods  are  also  employed),  or,  in  other  words,  distinct  plans 
of  combining  colors  in  a  chemical  manner  with  the  animal  fibres 
(or  vegetable).  We  shall  attempt  to  give  an  account  of 
•them,  with  an  explanation  of  the  theory  upon  which  these 
combinations  take  place."  * 

"  The  first  is  described  as  that  process  wherein  all  the 
materials  that  enter  into  the  composition  of  color  are  mingled 
together  in  one  common  solution  or  bath,  and  applied  to  the 
wool  or  cotton  at  once,  by  one  or  one  and  a  half  hours'  boil " 
on  wool  (but  on  cotton,  either  in  a  cold  or  lukewarm  bath). 

First  Process. 

"  If,  in  a  clear  solution  of  logwood,  fustic,  or  other  kind  of 
dj'estuflf,  you  pour  another  solution  of  any  metallic  or  earthy 
salt,  such  as  copperas,  alum,  &c.,you  will  observe,  when  this 
mixture  takes  place,  the  solution  becomes  broken,  and  a  flocky 
or  curd-like  matter  is  formed,  which  gradually  settles  to  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel  in  which  the  mixture  was  made.  This 
precipitate  is  the  color,  which  in  this  first  method  of  dyeing 
you  apply  directly  to  the  wool  by  about  one  or  one  and  a  half 
hours'  immersion  and  boil." 

"This  experiment  exhibits  in  the  clearest  manner,  the  for- 
mation of  any  color  we  wish  ta  combine  with  the  wool  ;• 
actually  impressing  on  the  visual  organs  the  mysterious  oper- 
ations of  the  invisible  mechanism  of  dyeing ;  for  we  really 
and  positively  see  the  union  take  place  between  the  coloring 
principle  and  the  earthy  and  metallic  salt ;  the  combination 
of  which  two  substances  forms  or  makes  the  color  we  intend 
to  place  upon  either  the  wool,  silk,  or  cotton." 

"  It  also  explains  the  true  theory  of  the  formation  and  con- 
stitution of  colors,  showing  them  to  be  a  chemical  compound, 
the  elements  of  whose  composition  are  an  undefined  coloring 

19 


146  THE    AMERICAX    DYER. 

principle,  distributed  nbuiidantly  through  the  vegetable  and 
mineral  kingdoms,  and  an  earthy  substance,  or  metallic 
oxide." 

"Although  this  flocky  substance  (which  is  new-formed 
color)  gradually  subsides  to  the  bottom,  and  leaves  the  liquor 
but  slightly  tinged,  yet  it  is  not  an  insoluble  precipitate,  but 
is  partially  soluble  in  water,  and  more  particularly  at  a  boil- 
ing heat;  and  on  this  slight  degree  of  solubility  rests  the, 
property  it  possesses  of  forming  a  chemical  union  with  the 
material  to  be  colored.  If  it  formed  an  insoluble  precipitate, 
no  chemical  combination  could  take  place  by  this  method  of 
dyeing;  because  the  wool,  cotton,  or  silk  being  boiled  in  a 
liquor  containing  nothing  but  an  insoluble  powder,  no  chem- 
ical action  could  take  place  between  them,  and  the  wool, 
cotton,  or  silk  would  be  merely  stained,  and  this  insoluble 
precipitate  only  adhering  to  it,  and  that  with  but  a  slight 
mechanical  force,  the  simple  operation  of  washing  in  water 
would  be  sufficient  to  remove  it." 

"As  said  before,  this  partial  solubility  of  the  color  is  the 
cause  of  its  union  with  the  wool,  cotton,  and  silk,,  for  upon 
immersing  these  substances  in  the  liquor,  it  immediately 
seizes  the  part  held  in  solution  (the  affinity  between  the  color 
and  the  material  to  be  colored  being  greater  than  between  the. 
water  and  the  color)  ;  the  water  thus  exhausted  of  the  color 
which  it  held  in  solution,  will  now  dissolve  another  portion 
of  the  color,  which  is  again  taken  up  by  the  wool,  silk,  or 
cotton;  and  so  on,  portion  after  portion,  until  the  whole  col- 
oring: matter  becomes  combined  with  the  material  which  is 
being  colored,  having  all  been  dissolved  successively  by  the 
water,  before  it  could  enter  into  a  close  combination  with  the 
fibre  of  the  substance  to  be  colored." 

"This  method  of  dyeing  requires  a  rapid  ebullition  during 
the  time  of  coloring,  as  the  greater  the  heat  and  agitation 
given  to  the  water,  the  more  finely  are  the  broad,  flocky  par- 
ticles broken  and  cut  up  ;  and  in  proportion   to   the  minute- 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  147 

ness  of  the- coloring  molecules,  so  will  be  the  intensity  of  the 
shade." 

"Although  this  method  of  dyeing  is  more  expeditious  thtUi 
either  of  the  other  two,  yet  we  do  not  consider  it  equal  to 
them,  either  in  brilliancy  or  permanency  of  color." 

"This  plan  is  more  generally  used  for  yarn,  flannels,  and 
cloth,  especially  the  finer  colors  ;  yet  you  will  find  it  resorted 
to  in  several  recipes  for  wool  and  cotton  dyeing." 

The  Second  Process. 

"The  second  method  of  applying  the  color  is  known  among 
dyers  by  the  ai)propriate  terms  of  stuffing  and  saddening,  and 
its  operations  are  performed  in  this  manner  : 

"After  the  dyestuffs  have  been  boiled  sufficiently  to  extract 
their  coloring  matters,  the  wool  is  entered,  and  two  hours' 
boiling  given  to  it.  This  is  the  stuffing  part  of  the  process  ; 
and  the  wool  acquires  only  a  slight  tinge  of  the  color  peculiar 
to  an  extract  of  the  dyestuffs  used  in  making  the  solution." 

"Longer  boiling  than  the  above  time  is  unnecessary,  as  all 
the  color  requisite  to  produce  the  best  effects  is,  in  that  time, 
combined  in  the  wool." 

"The  next  step  is  the  saddening,  or  giving  to  it  the  mor- 
dant, which  consists  of  some  chemical  salt,  such  as  copperas, 
blue  vitriol,  alum,  &c.  ;  the  manner  of  doing  which  is  laid 
down  in  the  article  'On  the  Operations  of  Dyeing'  "  (which 
see). 

"In  the  first  part  of  this  process,  a  combination  is  effected 
between  the  wool  and  the  coloring  matter,  analogous  to  that 
which  takes  place  between  the  astringent,  or  tanning  princi- 
ple, and  the  raw  hide,  in  the  process  of  tanning.  Let  us 
illustrate  this  : 

"Make  a  decoction  of  logwood,  or  fustic,  for  instance,  then 
pour  into  the  decoction  a  w^eak  solution  of  gelatine,  and  you 
will  perceive  that  a  precipitate  falls,  of  the  color  of  the  solu- 
tion of  the  dyestuff  employed,  and  a  large  amount  of  color 
has  been  abstracted  from  the  decoction.     This  precipitate  is 


148  THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 

the  glue  and  the  coloring  matter,  which,  by  their  mutual  affin- 
ities, have  formed  a  compound  that  is  insoluble  in  water.  Of 
a  similar  nature  is  the  union  resulting  from  the  bailing  of 
wool  in  the  solution  of  most  of  the  dyestufFs." 

"In  the  saddening  part  of  the  process,  both  the  coloring- 
matter  and  the  wool  having  a  strong  affinity  for  the  metallic 
or  earthy  salts  ;  these  are  drawn  by  them  with  an  increased 
attraction,  and  a  triple  compound,  of  animal  matter,  the  col- 
oring-principle, and  the  mineral  base  of  the  color,  is  formed, 
which,  being  held  together  by  virtue  of  the  three  separate 
forces,  offers  such  a  resistance  that  boiling  water  cannot  dis- 
unite them." 

"  Precisely  similar  are  all  unions  of  coloring-matter  with 
wool,  no  matter  what  process  may  have  been  employed  to 
effect  it." 

Third  Process,  or  Preparation  and  Finishing. 

"This  is  exactly  the  reverse  of  the  second  method,  and 
consists  of  two  distinct  stages  ;  in  the  first  of  which  the  wool 
is  boiled  for  one  and  a  half  or  two  hours  (see  article,  Opera- 
tions of  Dyeing) ,  in  a  solution  of  the  metallic  or  earthy  salts 
that  form  the  mordant,  or  base  of  the  color  you  wish  to  pro- 
duce. These  have  a  strong  tendency  to  unite  with  the  wool, 
inasmuch  that  on  coming  out  of  the  preparation  it  is  generally 
tinged  with  the  shade  peculiar  to  the  oxide  of  the  metal  used ; 
and  so  tenacious  is  its  power  of  adhesion,  that,  after  the  col- 
oring-matter originally  used  shall  have  faded  off,  or  under- 
gone a  material  change,  the  property  of  the  mordant  remains 
unaltered,  for  it  will  absorb  fresh  coloring-matter  as  readily 
as  before." 

"In  the  second  part  of  this  method,  or  process,  a  bath  of 
clean  water  is  prepared,  in  which  the  dyestuffs  are  boiled 
until  all  the  color  is  extracted ;  in  this,  the  prepared  or  mor- 
danted wool  is  dyed  up,  occupying  one  and  a  half  or  two 
hours'  time  in  boiling.  In  this  case,  the  wool  and  the  mor- 
dant both  having  an  affinity  for  the  coloring-matter,  their  joint 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  149 

forces  attract  it  from  the  water  with  such  violence  that  it  is 
immediately  and  rapidly'  united  with  them,  and  the  color  is 
soon  brought  out.  For  this  reason,  the  finishing  part  of  the 
process  requires  expert  workmanship,  in  order  to  have  the 
wool  evenly  dyed." 

"The  same  colors,  produced  by  this  process,  are  more  bril- 
liant and  permanent  than  by  either  of  the  other  processes, 
but  this  process  requires  more  time  and  labor,  and  is  also 
more  expensive  than  either  of  the  other  methods." 

"From  these  observations,  it  will  appear  that  there  can  be 
but  three  plans  of  combining  color  with  wool." 

" I^irst.    By  applying  the  color  at  one  operation. 

"  Second.  By  combining  the  coloring-matter  with  the  wool, 
and  then  giving  it  the  mordant. 

"  Third.  In  fixing  the  mordant  upon  the  wool  first,  and 
then  applying  the  coloring-matter  afterwards." —  Gibsons 
/Si/stem  and  /Science  of  Colors. 


■  COTTON-YARN  DYEING. 
In  dyeing  cotton-yarns,  the  first  operation  is  to  boil  out  the 
yarn  in  a  soda-ash  solution.  This  is  sometimes  done  under 
pressure  ;  that  is,  the  yarn  is  put  into  an  iron  vessel.  The  soda- 
ash  solution  is  then  poured  in,  and  the  aperture  of  the  caul- 
dron is  closed  and  screwed  down  perfectly  steam-tight,  the 
steam-valve  is  opened  to  allow  it  to  enter  the  cauldron,  to 
which  is  attached  a  safety-valve,  with  a  weight  attached  to  the 
lever.  This  weight  can  be  adjusted  according  to  the  amount  of 
pressure  required  ;  but  in  a  greater  part  of  the  dye-houses 
where  cotton  yarn  or  thread  is  colored,  the  yarn  is  placed  in 
one  of  the  tubs  and  slats  laid  across  upon  the  yarn,  with 
weights  laid  upon  them,  to  keep  the  yarn  under  the  liquor; 
steam  is  then  let  on,  and  the  yarn  boils  from  two  to  five  hours 
the  day  before  it  is  to  be  colored.     For  light  and  delicate 


150  THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 

colors  the  yarn  is  often  bloached  before  it  is  dyed,  in  order 
to  obtain  a  more  clear  and  brilliant  color ;  the  bleaching  is 
effected  by  first  boiling  ont  the  yarn  as  above  described,  then 
passing  it  throngh  a  chloride  of  lime  solution,  then  washing 
it  from  this  in  cold  water ;  it  is  wrung  out  and  passed  through 
a  bath  of  cold  water  to  which  has  been  added  a  very  small 
quantity  of  chemic  and  oil  of  vitriol  (some  dyers  use  a  little 
soap  in  this  bath)  ;  it  is  then  washed  again,  and  is  now  ready 
for  the  coloring  processes  or  to  be  dried  for  white. 

A  great  deal  depends  upon  the  handling  of  the  yarn  in  the 
operation  of  coloring  it,  in  order  to  obtain  even  colors,  and 
most  especially  in  coloring  greens  ;  the  yarn  should  be  wrung 
three  times,  and  well  lorung,  awA  shaken  out,  and  those  colors 
that  have  to  be  spirited  before  they  receive  the  coloring- 
matter,  should  be  washed  out  in  w^arm  water  instead  of  cold 
before  they  are  immersed  in  the  dyeing-bath,  and  in  each 
bath  they  should  have  an  odd  turn  ;  that  is,  they  should  have 
either  three,  five,  seven,  or  nine  turns.  This  is  essential  in 
order  that  they  be  colored  even.  By  giving  these  odd  turns 
each  end  of  the  skein  is  subjected  to  the  same  length  of  time 
in  the  different  solutions. 

Care  should  be  taken  that  the  drying-room  is  not  kept  at 
too  high  a  temperature  of  heat,  and  that  the  yarn  is  wrung  out 
as  dry  as  possible  before  it  is  hung  up  in  the  drying-room,  for 
this  reason  :  the  yarn  being  wet  when  it  is  hung  up,  the  heat 
in  the  dry-room  will  sul)ject  the  colors  to  a  hot  vapor-bath^ 
and  the  colors  will  be  partially  destroyed  by  the  joint 
action  of  the  heat  and  steg^m  arising  from  the  wet  yarn,  for 
heat  acts  upon  colors  on  cotton  differently,  when  the  heat  in 
the  drying-room  is  dry,  and  when  it  is  moist,  which  shows 
the  necessity  of  giving  close  attention  to  the  drying  of  the 
yarn,  b}'^  hanging  far  enough  apart  to  allow  the  free  outlet  of 
the  moisture.  Even  the  same  dyestuffs  fixed  upon  the  cotton 
yarn,  but  by  different  mordants,  are  affected  differently  by 
heat,  whether  moisture  be  present  or  not.  Greens  and  Prus- 
sian blues  are  affected  the  most  if  hung  up  wet,  and  then  raising 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  151 

the  temperature  of  the  room  to  ji  high  heat ;  the  Prussian  blue 
would,  under  these  circum^ances,  entirely  fade  away  if  the 
temperature  should  be  raised  to  212  degrees,  Fahr.  The 
same  colors  fixed  upon  silk  and  cotton,  placed  in  the  dryino^- 
room,  being  equally  moist  are  affected  oppositely,  the  color 
upon  the  silk  not  being  affected,  whilst  that  upon  the  cotton 
is  completely  destroyed.  This  is  particularly  the  case  if  the 
color  fixed  upon  them  be  a  safflower-pink. 

In  working  the  following  recipes  for  coloring  cotton-yarn, 
the  explanation  of  the  technical  terms  used  will  be  found  in 
the  glossary  at  the  latter  part  of  this  book,  as  will  all  the 
terms  used  throughout  the  work. 

In  coloring  the  safflower-pinks,  the  yarn  must  be  first 
bleached,  but  not  blued  ;  that  is,  in  bleaching  the  yarn,  there 
must  not  be  any  chemic  used. 

After  they  are  colored,  the  yarn  must  be  dried  in  a  cold 
room^  or  in  a  shed  where  the  sun's  rays  will  not  reach  the 
yarn.  And  in  coloring  these  kinds  of  pinks,  everything  about 
the  boxes  must  be  clean  ;  yet  there  is  no  damage  done  them  if 
colored  in  the  boxes  where  reds,  or  the  scarlet  shades,  have  been 
colored  :  provided  you  wash  the  boxes  out  well  with  clean  water. 
If  you  were  to  color  100  lbs.  yarn  safflower-pink,  and  use  three 
pints  of  extract  safflower,  and  dry  it  in  a  room  that  is  heated, 
and  then  color  100  lbs.  yarn  with  two  pints  of  extract  of 
safflower,  and  dry  the  yarn  in  a  cold  room,  you  would  find 
that  the  latter  was  the  best  color.  So  we  see  the  propriety  of 
attending  to  the  manner  of  drying  this  kind  of  a  pink  on 
cotton -yarn. 


RECIPES  FOR  COTTON-THREAD. 

The  following  recipes  are  colors  that  have  been  produced 

upon  thread  within  the  last  two  years,  and  are  the  colors 

mostly  in  demand  at  the  present  time,  and  a  great  many  of 

them  are  colors  employed  for  warp  that  were  for  goods  that 


152  THE   AMERICAN  DYER. 

require  the  fulling  and  scouring  process  in  their  manufacture  ; 
therefore  they  are  termed  permafLenl  or  fast. 

Purple. 
25  lbs.  cotton-yarn.  Steep  the  yarn  overnight  in 
8  lbs.  Sumac.  Wring  it  out.  Then 
In  a  bath  of  clear  water,  add  enough  nitro-muriate  of  tin  to 
indicate  2  degrees  by  Twaddle  hydrometer.  Work  the  yarn 
in  this  solution  twenty  minutes  ;  wring  out ;  wash,  and  wring 
three  times  (that  is,  wring  three  times).  Then  in  another 
fresh-water  bath,  dissolve  4  lbs.  extract  of  logwood.  Work 
the  yarn  in  this  for  three- fourths  of  an  hour,  at  a  boil-heat. 
Then  raise  the  yarn,  and  add  one  lb.  sal-soda.  Enter  the 
yarn  again,  and  turn  seven  times,  or  more  if  the  shade  is  not 
dark  enough.  The  sumac-bath  should  be  about  100  degrees 
F. ;  but  the  spirit-tub  is  worked  cold.  The  spirit-solution 
can  be  kept  for  other  colors  which  require  the  spirit,  by  adding 
to  it  enough  nitro-muriate  of  tin  to  bring  it  up  to  the  desired 
standard,  —  2°  Twaddle. 

Fast  Purple. 
25  lbs.  cotton-yarn. 

Boil  out  five  lbs.  sumac  for  a  half  hour.  Cool  down  to 
170°  F.  Enter  the  yarn  ;  give  five  turns  ;  then  lay  it  down 
under  the  liquor  overnight,  or  at  least  for  four  hours.  Take 
out  and  wring  the  yarn. 

Second.  Dissolve  two  and  a  half  lbs.  stannate  of  soda  in  a 
box  or  tub  of  boiling  water.  Enter  the  yarn,  and  give  seven 
turns.     Wring  the  yarn  ;  wash  it  off,  and  wring  again. 

This  bath  can  be  kept  for  further  use  by  adding  two  lbs.  of 
stannate  of  soda  for  every  twenty-five  lbs.  of  yarn. 

Third.  Dissolve  in  a  bath  at  140°  F.,  three  and  a  half 
ounces  of  Hoflfmann's  B  Bs.  Enter  the  yarn,  and  give  five 
turns.     Bring  the  bath  to  a  boil  as  soon  as  possible. 

If  a  redder  shade  is  wanted,  use  the  same  amount  of  Hoft- 
mann's  RRR  instead  of  the  BBs. 


THE   AMERICAN    DYER.  '  153 

Before  entering  the  yarn  into  the  dye  or  third  bath,  add  two 
quarts  of  a  mordant  made  thns  : 

Two  lbs.  alum  ;  one  lb.  brown  sugar  of  lead.  Dissolve 
these  in  three  gallons  of  water.  "When  dissolved,  add  water 
until  it  shows  12°  Twaddle. 

Silver  Drab. 

20  lbs.  cotton-yarn  : 
4  ounces  Ground  Logwood, 

1  quart  of  Lime-water  (clear). 

Boil  out  the  logwood  for  fifteen  minutes  in  a  convenient 
vessel.  Then  pour  it  into  the  dj^e-tub,  and  add  the  lime- 
water.  Give  the  yarn  nine  turns.  Take  out  and  wash  it  off. 
This  is  a  cold  bath. 

Another  Silver  Drab. 

20  lbs.  cotton-yarn  : 
Boil  out  one-quarter  lb.  nutgalls.  Add  the  clear  solution 
to  the  dye-tub  of  cold  water.  Give  the  yarn  seven  turns  in 
this.  Then  raise  it  out,  and  add  one-half  gill  of  nitrate  of 
iron  (iron  liquor).  Enter  the  yarn  again,  and  give  it  five 
turns.     Take  out  and  wash  the  yarn  off. 

Light  Drab. 

50  lbs.  cotton-yarn  : 

2  lbs.  Cutch. 

1  lb.    Extract  Fustic, 

1  lb.  Nutgalls. 
Boil  out  the  nutgalls,  and  dissolve  the  cutch  and  fustic. 
Then  enter  the  yarn,  and  turn  it  for  half  an  hour  at  a  boiling 
heat.  Raise  out  the  yarn,  and  add  to  the  solution  one-quarter 
lb.  of  copperas.  Cool  down  the  bath  to  165°  F.  Enter  the 
yarn,  and  turn  for  ten  minutes.     Take  it  out  and  wash  off. 

20 


154  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

Another  Light  Drab. 
50  lbs.  cottou-yaru : 

1  lb.    Cutch, 
1^  lb.    Sumac, 

2  oz.   Extract  Fustic. 

Proceed  as  for  the  other  light  drab.  Give  the  yarn  five 
turns,  smartly,  at  a  boiling  heat ;  then  take  it  up  and  add  to 
the  solution,  one  lb.  copperas  ;  re-enter  the  yarn,  and  give 
five  turns  at  boiling  heat ;  take  out  and  dry. 

Linen  Color. 

50  lbs.  cotton-yarn  : 
Boil  out  twenty  lbs.  sumac  ;  when  it  is  settled,  add  the  clear 
liquor  to  the  dye-tub  ;  heat  it  up  to  130°  F.     Enter  the  yarn, 
and  give  it  five  turns  ;  then  lay  it  down  in  the  bath  until  next 
morning ;  take  it  out  and  wash  and  wring  out. 

Tan  Color. 
50  lbs.  cotton-yarn  : 
Boil  out  six  lbs.  cutch;  enter  the  yarn  at  a  boiling  heat, 
and  turn  it  for  twenty  minutes ;  take  it  out  and  wring  it. 
Keep  this  bath  for  further  use.     In  a  tub  of  water  dissolve 
1  lb.  Blue  Vitriol, 
6  oz.  Chrome. 
Enter  the  yarn  at  150°  F.,  give  it  five  turns,  take  it  out, 
now  add  to  the  first  or  cutch  bath  six  ounces  of  chrome  ;  after 
it  is  dissolved  enter  the  yarn  at  160°  F.,  and  give  it  three 
turns  ;  take  out  and  wash  it  off,  and  dry. 

Another  Tan  Color. 
50  lbs.  cotton-yarn : 
1^  lbs.  Sumac, 
\  lb.      Extract  Logwood, 
6  lbs.    Cutch. 
Boil  these  until  all  are  dissolved.     Enter  the  yarn  and  turn 
it  for  one-half  an  hour,  at  a  boiling  heat,  take  it  out.     Then 


THE  ameiiic^s:n^  dyer.  155 

in  a  fresh  bath  use  one  lb.  blue  vitriol,  one-half  lb.  chrome, 
one-quarter  lb.  copperas.  AVhen  dissolved,  enter  the  yarn 
at  150°  F.,  and  turn  it  for  fifteen  minutes  ;  take  it  up  ;  now 
add  to  the  first  bath  two  ounces  of  chrome,  and  turn  the  yarn 
in  this  for  tifteen  minutes,  at  130°  F.  Take  out,  wash  off, 
and  dry. 

Dark  Blue. 
50  ll)s.  cotton-thread  ; 
Add  to  a  cup  of  cold  water, 
6  pints  Nitrate  of  Iron, 
2  lbs.    Tin  Crystals. 
Stir  or  rake  up  the  tub,  enter  the  thread  or  yarn,  and  turn 
for  twenty  minutes.     Take  out  the  yarn  and  wash  it  off  well. 
Then  in  a  second  bath  of  fresh  water,  add 
10  lbs.     Yellow  Prussiate  of  Potash, 

1  quart  Muriatic  Acid. 

When  the  prussiate  is  dissolved,  enter  the  yarn,  and  turn 
for  twenty  minutes.  Take  it  out,  and  pass  the  yarn  into  the 
first  bath  (nitrate  of  iron  bath),  giving  seven  turns.  Take 
it  out  and  pass  it  through  the  prussiate  tub,  giving  seven 
turns.     Take  out  and  wash  off. 

If  you  desire  a  venj  dark  blue,  make  a  fresh  bath  with  four 
lbs.  extract  logwood,  one  lb.  chemic,  three-fourths  lb.  alum. 
Run  the  yarn  in  this,  after  the  above  operations,  for  twenty 
minutes.  Take  it  out  and  wash  off  again.  N.  B.  These  are 
all  cold  baths. 

Medium  Blue. 
50  lbs.  cotton-thread  : 

2  quarts  Nitrate  of  Iron, 
2  lbs.      Tin  Crystals. 

Turn  the  yarn  for  twenty  minutes,  then  take  it  up. 
In  a  fresh  bath  dissolve 

2|  lbs.  Yellow  Prussiate  of  Potash, 

1  pint    Muriatic  Acid. 


156  THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 

Enter  the  yarn  and  turn  for  twenty  minutes.  Take  it  out 
and  pass  it  into  the  nitrate  of  iron  bath,  then  back  to  the 
prussiate  tub,  turning  it  for  twenty  minutes  in  each  bath, 
washing  it  off  after  the  last  time  through  the  prussiate  bath. 

These  baths,  like  those  for  dark  blue,  are  worked  cold. 
These  blues  should  be  dried  in  a  very  dry  atmosphere.  They 
should  be  wrung  out  as  dry  as  possible,  before  being  hung  up 
to  dry. 

Light  Blue. 
50  lbs.  cotton-yarn  : 
First  bath.     1  quart  Nitrate  of  Iron, 

1  lb.    Tin  Crystals. 
Second  bath.     1^  lbs.    Yellow  Prussiate  of  Potash, 

l|  gills  Oil  of  Vitriol. 
Proceed  as  in  the  operations  of  the  above  blue.     Lighter 
shades  can  be  obtained  by  diminishing  the  proportions  in  the 
proper  ratio. 

Prussian  Blue. 
30  lbs.  cotton-yarn  : 
First  bath.     Add  two  quarts  of  nitrate  of  iron  to  the  tub 
of  hot  water.     Enter  the  yarn,  and  give  nine  turns,  at  a  boil- 
ing heat.     Take  out  and  wring. 

Second  bath.     To  the  tub  of  cold  water,  add 
1|-  lbs.  Yellow  Prussiate  of  Potash, 
4  oz.     Tin  Crystals, 
4  oz.     Oil  of  Vitriol. 
Enter  the  yarn  and  give  nine  turns.     Take  out  and  wash 
off,  and  wring  out  the  yarn. 

If  the  shade  is  not  dark  enough,  give  it  five  turns  more  in 
the  first  or  iron  bath.  Then  wring  out,  enter  into  the  second 
or  prussiate  tub,  and  give  five  turns.  Take  out,  wash  off, 
and  wring  the  yarn  out. 

German  Blue. 
50  lbs.  cotton-yarn : 
To  four  gallons  of  water,  add 


THE  america:n^  dyer.  157 

4|  lbs.  Wheat  Starch, 

1|  lbs.  Chlorate  of  Potash, 

1|  lbs.  Chloride  of  Copper, 

2^  lbs.  Chloride  of  Aniline. 
For  every  two  lbs.  of  yarn,  add  nine  quarts  of  the  above 
mixture  to  a  tub  of  cold  water.  Enter  the  yarn  in  this,  and. 
give  six  turns.  Take  out  and  hang  up  to  dry  and  age  for  two 
days.  Then  wash  off  the  yarn,  and  pass  it  through  a  bath 
containing  sufficient  yeast  or  any  other  ferment  to  remove  the 
starch.  Wring  out  the  yarn  from  this  bath,  and  enter  it  into 
a  tub  of  cold  water,  with  enough  oil  of  vitriol  added  to  it  so 
that  it  is  just  perceptible  to  the  taste.  Give  five  or  six  turns. 
Take  out,  wash  off.  Then  give  five  turns  in  tub  of  cold  water, 
to  which  has  been  added  enough  soda  to  mark  2^°  Twaddle. 
Take  out,  wash  off,  and  dry. 

Dark  Prussian  Blue. 
50  lbs.  cotton-yarn  : 
First  bath,     li  pints  Nitrate  of  Iron, 

f\h.        Tin  Crystals. 
Enter  the  yarn,  and  turn  for  twenty  minutes.     Take  out 
and  wring  the  yarn. 

Second  bath.     Add  to  the  clear  water,  one  lb.  yellow  prus- 
siate  of  potash  (previously  dissolved),  and  one  gill  muriatic 
acid.     Enter  the  yarn,  and  turn  for  twenty  minutes.     Take 
out,  re-enter  into  first  bath,  proceed  as  for  the  first  time,  then 
re-enter  the  second  bath,  and  proceed  the  same.     Take  out 
and  wash  off  the  yarn  well,  and  wring  it  out. 
Third  bath.     Dissolve 
4  lbs.  Extract  Logwood, 
I  lb.    Alum,  • 


lb.    Sulphate  of  Indigo  (Chemic), 


and  add  them  to  a  tub  of  cold  water. 

Enter  the  yarn,  and  turn  for  twenty  minutes.     Take  out 
and  wash  off. 

All  these  baths  are  cold-water  ones. 


158  THE    AMEKICAN    DYER. 


'Chrome  Yellow. 
25  lbs.  cotton-thread  : 
First  bath.     Ten   ounces  chrome.      Enter  yarn  and  give 
seven  turns  at  100°  F. 

Second  bath.  Ten  ounces  white  sugar  of  lead.  This  is  to 
be  cold.  Give  seven  turns  ;  that  is,  give  seven  turns  first  in 
the  second  bath,  then  seven  turns  in  the  first  bath,  then  seven 
turns  in  the  second  bath,  then  wash  oflf  the  yarn  and  dry. 

Dark  Slate. 
25  lbs.     cotton-yarn  : 
1^  lbs.  Nutgalls, 
7    oz.   Extract  Logwood. 
Boil  these  for  fifteen  minutes,  then  cool  down  the  bath  to. 
160°  F.     Enter  the  yarn  and  turn  for  half  an  hour,  take  out 
the  yarn  and  add  to  the  solution  half  a  pound  copperas,  re- 
enter the  yarn  and  turn  for  fifteen  minutes  at  160°,  take  out 
and  wash  off,  or  not. 

Medium  Slate. 
50  lbs.  cotton-yarn : 
6  oz.  Extract  Logwood, 
^  lb.    Sumac. 
Boil  these  articles  for  twenty  minutes,  then  cool  down  the 
bath  to  160°.     Enter  the  yarn  and  turn  for  twenty  minutes, 
take  it  out  and  add  six  ounces  copperas,  re-enter  the  yarn 
and  turn  for  twenty  minutes  at  100°  F.,  take  out  the  yarn  and 
wash  oflf,  wring  out  and  dry.     After  washing  oflf  for  the  dry- 
ing, wring  out  or  extract  the  yarn  in  all  cases. 

• 
Light  Slate. 
50  lbs.  cotton-yarn  : 
2|  oz.  Extract  Logwood, 
3    oz.  Sumac. 
Boil  these  for  fifteen  minutes,  then  cool  down  to  160°  F., 
enter  the  yarn  and  turn  for  twenty  minutes,  take  out  the  yarn 


THE    AMERIC^VN   DYER.  159 

and  run  off  the  liquor  enough  so  that  by  filling  up  again  with 
colli  water  the  temperature  will  be  reduced  to  100°  F.,  then 
add  two  ounces  copperas ;  re-enter  the  yarn  and  turn  for 
twenty  minutes ;  take  out,  wash  and  wring. 

Green. 
50  lbs.  cotton-yarn  : 
Give  the  yarn  a  blue  bottom,  by  dyeing  it  a  medium  Prus- 
sian blue  (see   recipe  for  medium  blue).     Then,  in  a  fresh 
bath,  dissolve  two  and  a  half  pounds  extract  fustic  ;  turn  the 
yarn  for  fifteen  minutes  at  a  boil ;  thentake  out  the  yarn  and 
add  to  the  solution 
2  lbs.  Alum, 
2  lbs.  Tumeric. 
Boil  these  for  ten  minutes,  then  re-enter  the  yarn  and  turn 
for  half  an  hour  ;  take  out  and  M'ash  off. 

Unless  the  yarn  for  greens  is  handled  well,  they  will  gen- 
erally be  uneven,  so  great  care  and  attention  must  be  given 
to  the  manipulations  in  order  to  avoid  this  difficulty. 

Green. 
20  lbs.  cotton-3'arn  : 

First.  Give  the  yarn  a  good  blue  in  the  copperas-vat,  by 
coloring  it  a  Prussian  blue  (see  Prussian  blue  recipes)  :  wash 
off  the  yarn. 

Second.  To  a  tub  of  cold  water,  add  acetate  of  alumina 
enough  to  indicate  6°  Twaddle;  enter  the  yarn  and  turn  for 
fifteen  minutes  ;  take.out  and  wash  off  in  warm  water. 

Third.  Boil  in  a  bag  eight  pounds  quercitron  bark  for  three- 
quarters  of  an  hour;  cool  down  the  solution  to  190°  F.  Enter 
the  yarn  and  turn  for  fifteen  minutes;  take  out  the  yarn  and 
add  to  the  liquor  one  pint  of  red  liquor,  or  one  pound  of 
alum  ;  re-enter  the  yarn  and  give  five  turns  ;  take  out,  wash  off 
and  wring  the  yarn  and  dry  (see  remarks  on  drying  greens). 
A  little  chemic  in  the  bark  liquor  will  make  a  little  brighter 
color. 


160  THE   AMEKICAJS^   DYER. 


Methyl-Green, 
10  lbs.  cotton-yarn  : 

First  bath.  Steep  the  yarn  overnight  in  one  pound  sumac ; 
next  morning  wring  out  and  shake  open  the  yarn  well. 

Second  bath.  Dissolve  one  and  a  half  ounces  methyl-green 
crystals,  and  add  to  a  box  of  water  heated  to  130°  F. ;  stir  it 
up  well ;  enter  the  yarn  and  give  seven  turns,  or  until  it  will 
not  take  on  any  more  color. 

This  bath  can  be  worked  hotter,  but  the  color  does  not 
seem  to  go  on  so  perfectly  as  it  does  at  the  above  temperature. 
The  sumac  bath  is  worked  cold. 

Fast  Geeen. 
25  lbs.  cotton-yarn  ; 

First  bath.  Steep  the  yarn  in  five  pounds  sumac  at  160° 
F.  overnight ;  next  morning  wring  out  the  yarn. 

Second  bath.  Dissolve  two  and  a  half  pounds  stannate  of 
soda  in  a  box  or  tub  of  boiling  water,  enter  the  yarn  and  give 
seven  turns,  take  out,  wring,  wash  out  the  yarn  and  wring  it 
again. 

This  bath,  like  the  one  for  fast  purple,  can  be  kept  for 
further  use,  by  adding  two  pounds  stannate  for  every  twenty- 
five  pounds  of  yarn. 

Third  bath.  Boil  in  a  convenient  vessel  four  pounds  quer- 
citron bark,  take  the  clear  liquor  and  add  to  the  bath.  Dis- 
solve three  and  a  half  ounces  of  iodine-green  crystals  and  add 
to  the  bath.  Enter  the  yarn  at  140°  F.',  and  give  five  turns, 
bringing  the  bath  to  a  boil  as  soon  as  possible,  which  should 
be  done  in  half  an  hour ;  then  take  out  the  yarn  and  put  it 
through  the  oil-bath  at  lukewarm  heat  (see  oil-bath  which  is 
given  with  the  recipes  for  black).  This  oil-bath  softens  the 
yarn.  Before  entering  the  yarn  in  the  third  bath,  add  two 
quarts  of  mordant  (for  making  the  same,  see  mordant  under 
the  recipe  for  fast  purple). 


THE    AMEllICAN   DYER.  161 

Dark  Green. 
50  lbs.  cotton-yarn  : 
First  bath.      3  pints  Nitrate  of  Iron, 

2  lbs.    Tin  Crystals. 
Second  bath.  1^  lbs.  Yellow  Prussiate  of  Potash. 
Proceed  as  for  blues.     (See  recipes  for  blue  on  cotton- 
yarn.)     Then  finish  in  a  fresh  bath  of 
21  lbs.  Fustic, 
2^  lbs.  Alum. 
Boil  the  extract  until  it  is  all  dissolved,  then  add  the  alum. 
Enter  the  yarn  and  turn  for  three-fourths  of  an  hour  at  a  boil ; 
take  out,  wash  off,  wring,  &c. 

Reds. 
In  coloring  reds  with  barwood,  it  should  be  thrown  into  the 
bath  loose,  as  the  barwood  must  be  in  contact  with  the  yarn. 
The  coloring-matter  of  barwood,  when  at  a  boiling  heat,  will 
easily  combine  with  the  spirits  or  compounds  of  tin  which  is 
upon  the  yarn,  resulting  in  *or  forming  an  insoluble  rich  red 
color.  For  barwood  reds,  the  yarn  is  first  steeped  in  sumac, 
then  impregnated  with  protochloride  of  tin  ("spirited"), 
then,  being  put  into  a  solution  of  barwood,  what  coloring- 
matter  is  held  in  solution  the  yarn  will  take  up,  and  the 
water  thus  exhausted  will  then  dissolve  more  of  the  color- 
ing-matter in  the  barwood,  and  this  will  be  again  taken  up 
by  the  tin,  and  so  on  until  the  tin  upon  the  yarn  is  completely 
saturated  with  the  coloring-matter ;  and  when  this  is  the  case, 
the  color  is  then  at  its  highest  and  richest  point,  and  it 
requires  a  large  amount  of  skill  and  experience  to  know  the 
exact  moment  when  to  take  the  yarn  out  of  the  bath.  Hav- 
ing to  throw  the  barwood  into  the  bath  loose,  in  order  to 
obtain  the  best  results,  the  yarn  becomes  filled  with  the 
particles  of  barwood,  which  causes  the  yarn  to  reel  oli'  very 
badly,  frequently  breaking,  &c.  To  obviate  this,  there 
should  be  a  frame  made  to  fit  the  dye-tub,  and  on  this  frame 
there  should  be  a  piece  of  coarse  cloth  ftistened  ;  there  should 

21 


162  THE   AMEKICAl^^   DYER. 

be  cleats  in  the  inside  to  hold  this  frame  a  certain  distance 
from  the  bottom  of  the  tub ;  then,  when  ready  to  color,  throw 
in  the  required  amount  of  barwood,  put  in  the  covered  frame 
and  button,  or  fasten  it  down  ;  then  pour  in  or  fill  up  the  tub 
with  water,  put  on  the  steam  and  boil  for  half  an  hour,  or  as 
the  recipe  may  direct ;  then  enter  the  yarn,  handling  it  at 
boiling.     By  doing  this  the  yarn  is  free  from  dirt  and  chips. 

Barwood  Red. 
50  lbs.  cotton-yarn. 

First  bath.  Twenty  lbs.  sumac.  Boil  it  out,  and,  when  set- 
tled, take  the  clear  solution  and  add  it  to  the  dye-tub  ;  heat  it  to 
100°  Fahr.,  enter  the  yarn  and  give  five  turns,  then  lay  it 
down  under  the  liquor  and  leave  there  all  night ;  next  morn- 
ing take  out  and  wring. 

Second  bath.  Add  to  this  enough  nitro-muriate  of  tin  to 
indicate  2^°  Twaddle  (see  article,  tin  solutions),  enter  the 
yarn  and  give  it  nine  turns,  take  it  out  and  wash  off.  This 
bath  is  to  be  cold,  and  can  be  kept  for  further  use  by  adding 
enough  more  spirits  to  indicate  the  strength  required. 

Third  or  finishing  bath.     45  lbs.  Barwood, 

8  lbs.  Hypernic-wood. 

Follow  the  plan  laid  down  in  the  preceding  page  in  regard 
to  the  barwood.  Turn  the  yarn  for  three-fourths  of  a  hour 
at  a  boil. 

We  will  give  a  few  processes  for  coloring  Turkey-red  upon 
cotton-yarns,  although  we  doubt  whether  these  recipes  will  be 
of  any  benefit  to  the  majority  of  cotton-dyers,  as  they  are 
too  costly  and  require  too  many  operations  and  manipulations 
for  most  of  purposes  for  which  cotton-thread  is  now  wanted. 

Turkey-Red. 
25  lbs.  cotton-yarn. 
First  bath.     Boil  out  the  yarn  in  soda-ash  (see  directions 
for  cotton-yarn  dyeing).     Steep  in  ten  lbs.  sumac  overnight, 
at  100°  Fahr. ;  next  morning  wring  out  the  yarn. 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  163 

Second  bath.  Add  to  clear  water  enough  acetate  of  alumina 
(red  liquor)  to  show  3°  on  Twaddle's  hydrometer,  enter  yarn 
and  give  nine  turns,  take  out  the  yarn  and  wash  off.  This 
second  bath  is  a  cold  one. 

Third  bath.  Dissolve  one  peck  of  sheep's  dung,  add  it  to 
the  hath,  and  enter  the  yarn  at  a  boil  and  turn  the  yarn  for 
three-fourths  of  an  hour. 

Fourth  bath.  Add  four  lbs.  of  alizarine  to  the  water  heated 
to  150°  Fahr.,  turn  the  yarn  in  this  for  two  hours,  take  it 
out  and  wring,  age  it  for  five  days  ;  that  is,  lay  it  away  for 
five  days  before  finishing  it  off.     Then  in  the  ' 

Fifth  bath.  Put  in  two  lbs.  soda-soap  ;  after  it  is  all  dis- 
solved, cool  down  the  bath  to  190°  Fahr.,  enter  the  yarn  and 
turn  for  one  hour,  take  it  out  and  wash  off  in  warm  water, 
wring  it  out  and  dry. 

This  is  the  only  method  that  we  know  which  is  used  in  this 
country.  The  most  simple  method,  and  of  the  least  expense 
and  trouble,  which  is  used  in  Europe,  is  the  following  one, 
which  is  a  French  recipe  :  — 

Red. 
10  lbs.  cotton-yarn. 

"  Steep  in  a  bath,  overnight,  of  two  and  a  half  lbs.  sumac  ; 
next  morning  take  out  the  yarn  and  wring  it,  add  two  oz.  of 
tin  crystals  to  the  sumac  liquor,  enter  the  yarn  and  turn  for 
half  an  hour,  take  out  the  yarn  and  wash  off  and  wring. 

"Second  bath.  To  water  heated  to  70°  Fahr.,  add  ten  oz. 
white  soap,  and  when  it  is  all  dissolved,  enter  the  yarn  and 
turn  for  twenty  minutes,  take  it  out  and  dry  the  yarn. 

"Third  bath.  Add  alum  enough  to  indicate  6°  on 
Baume's  hydrometer,  turn  the  yarn  in  this  for  half  an  hour 
at  70°  Fahr.,  take  out  the  yarn  and  wring  well. 

"Fourth  bath.  Two  and  one-half  pounds  garancine  ;  enter 
the  yarn  in  this  and  turn  for  one  hour  at  a  boil ;  take  it  out 
and  wring. 

"Fifth  bath.     Add  bleaching  powders  enough  to  show  1° 


164  THE  a:^ierican  dyer. 

Baume,  turn  in  this  for  fifteen  minutes,  take  out  the  yarn  and 
wash  oflf  well,  then  dry." 

Red. 
100  lbs.  cotton-yarn. 

First  bath.  Boil  out  for  half  an  hour,  30  lbs.  sumac ;  let 
it  settle,  draw  off  the  clear  liquor,  and  add  to  it  a  bath  of 
water  at  70°  F.,  enter  the  yarn  and  give  five  turns,  then 
sink  it  under  the  liquor  and  let  it  remain  there  all  night ; 
next  morning  take  it  out  and  wring  it. 

Second  bath.  Add  enough  nitro-muriateof  tinto  show  2|° 
Twaddle  (see  recipe  for  making  nitro-muriate  of  tin)  ;  give 
the  yarn  five  turns  in  this,  then  sink  it  under  the  liquor ;  let 
it  remain  one  hour,  take  it  up,  wash  it  well,  and  wring  as  dry 
as  possible. 

Third  bath.  Boil  in  bags  for  one  and  a  half  hours,  forty  lbs. 
Brazil-wood  ;  take  out  the  bags,  enter  the  yarn  and  give  seven 
turns,  take  it  out,  and  add  to  the  bath  three  gills  of  muriate 
of  tin  (see  recipe  for  making  it),  re-enter  the  yarn  and  give 
five  turns,  take  it  out  and  wash  oflf  in  cold  water. 

If  you  have  not  the  Brazil-wood,  use  50  lbs.  of  Hypernic- 
wood  instead,  but  the  hj'peruic  does  not  give  so  clear  and 
bright  a  red  as  the  Brazil-wood  does. 

We  will  here  remark,  that  in  coloring  reds  on  cotton-yarn, 
if  you  will,  after  washing  off  and  wringing  out  the  yarn  from 
the  spirit-tub,  or  bath,  pack  it  down  upon  a  scrai/y  and  cover 
it  over  with  a  damp  sheet  or  cloth  until  the  next  day,  you 
will  obtain  a  more  intense  and  brilliant  red  than  you  would 
otherwise. 

Also,  in  coloring  these  reds,  if  you  should  want  them  more 
towards  the  scarlet  shade,  use  four  or  five  pounds  of  fustic 
along  with  the  sumac. 

Red. 
This  is  the  nearest  approach  to  a  Turkey-red  of  any,  con- 
sidering the  few  operations  it  requires  to  produce  the  color, 


THE    AMERICAlf   DYER.  165 

and  it  is  the  brightest  and  clearest  red  made,  except  the  real 
Turkey-red  of  Europe. 
20  lbs.  cotton-yarn. 

First  bath.  Steep  in  twelve  lbs.  sumac  overnight;  next 
day  wring  out.     This  bath  must  be  cold. 

Second  bath.     Add  to  cold  water, 

3  lbs.  Acetate  of  Alumina,  at  3°  Baume, 
1  lb.    Acetate  of  lime,  at  3°  Baume. 

Give  the  yarn  seven  turns  in  this,  take  out,  wash  it  off, 
wring  out  and  shake  the  yarn  well  out,  then  enter  in  the 
Third  bath  ; 

1  lb.  Purpurine, 
1  lb.  White  Soap. 

Boil  these  for  half  an  hour,  then  cool  down  with  cold  water 
to  130°  F.,  turn  the  yarn  iu  this  for  half  an  hour,  raising  the 
temperature  to  190°  F.  ;  take  out,  wring  the  yarn. 

Fourth  bath.  Two  lbs.  tin  crystals  in  water,  at  160°  F. ; 
enter  the  yarn,  and  turn  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  ;  take  out 
and  wash  off.  This  bath  brightens  the  red,  yet  by  omitting 
it  the  color  is  very  beautiful. 

The  Turkey-red  process  is  such  a  complicated  one,  that 
there  is  no  dyer  in  this  country  would  be  at  the  trouble  of 
performing  the  various  operations  through  which  the  yarn  has 
to  pass ;  neither  do  our  manufacturers  want  to  be  at  such  an 
expense  as  it  would  necessarily  be  to  color  their  yarns  and 
threads  this  particular  shade  of  red.  However,  there  may  be 
some  one  who  will  purchase  this  book,  that  would  like  to  know 
the  process  by  which  such  a  beautiful  red  is  obtained  ;  there- 
fore, for  their  information,  we  will  insert  a  recipe  used  by 
Schrader,  one  of  the  best  of  German  dyers. 
25  lbs.  cotton-yarn. 

Fill  a  tub  with  soda  liquor,  of  1°  Baume  strength,  boil  the 
yarn  in  this  an  hour,  and  leave  it  in  the  soluti(.n  for  four 
hours.     This  is  called  the  first  bath. 

Second  bath,  or  cow-dung  bath.  Cow-dung,  five  lbs.  ; 
soda-ash  liquor,  20  lbs.,  at  bO°  Baume.     Mix  the  two  together, 


166  THE  america:n^  dtek. 

and  leave  for  ten  or  twelve  hours  ;  then  add  eighty  lbs.  of 
water,  eighty  lbs.  soda-ash  liquor,  at  4°  Baume  ;  then  filter  it 
through  a  fine  sieve,  and  add  to  the  clear  solution  four  and  a 
half  lbs.  olive  oil.  Stir  until  it  is  completely  united,  then 
enter  the  yarn  and  turn  for  half  an  hour ;  take  it  out  and 
wring,  then  leave  the  yarn  for  twelve  hours  to  age. 

Third,  or  white  bath.  Soda-ash  liquor,  9°  Baume  ;  add  two 
lbs.  olive  oil.  (By  the  soda-ash  liquor  is  meant,  add  enough 
soda-ash  to  the  water  you  have  in  the  tub,  so  that  it  will  indi- 
cate S°  by  Baume's  hydrometer).  When  these  are  incorpo- 
rated, add  to  it  seventy  lbs.  soda  lye,  at  2°  Baume.  Now 
enter  the  yarn  in  this,  and  give  half  an  hour's  turniug ;  take 
out  the  yarn,  wring  and  dry  it. 

Fourth  bath.  Add  enough  sal-soda  to  this  bath  to  stand  at 
1°  Baume,  turn  the  yarn  in  this  solution  for  fifteen  minutes, 
take  out,  wring,  and  leave  it  for  six  hours. 

All  the  above  baths  are  to  be  worked  cold. 

Fifth,  or  galling  bath.     Boil  for  three-quarters  of  an  hour, 
in  80  lbs.  of  water, 
2  lbs.  Nutgalls, 
8  lbs.  Sumac. 

Strain  it  through  a  fine  sieve,  turn  it  into  the  tub,  enter  the 
yarn,  and  give  five  turns ;  then  sink  it  beneath  the  liquor  for 
ten  hours.  (This  bath  is  to  be  at  boiling  heat  when  the  yarn 
is  entered.)  After  the  ten  hours  have  expired,  take  out  the 
yarn,  wring,  and  dry  it. 

Sixth,  or  alum  bath.  To  sixty  lbs.  water,  add  six  lbs. 
alum,  half  lb.  soda-ash  (pure),  and  half  lb.  chalk.  Boil 
these  until  dissolved,  then  let  it  settle,  and  take  the  clear 
liquor  and  add  it  to  the  tub ;  enter  the  yarn,  and  turn  until  it 
is  completely  wet  or  saturated ;  wring  out  and  dry. 

This  bath  is  to  be  lukewarm. 

Seventh  bath,  purification  from  the  alum.  Dissolve  one  lb. 
chalk  in  the  tub  of  cold  water,  turn  the  yarn  in  this  for  half 
an  hour,  take  it  out  and  wash  off. 


THE    AMERICAi^   DYER.  167 

Eighth,  or  Madder  bath  : 
1  pail  of  Blood, 
40  lbs.       Madder. 
Enter  yarn  in  this  at  175°  F.,  raise  the  heat  to  a  boil  in  one 
and  a  half  hours,  and  boil  half  an  hour,  turning  the  yarn  all 
the  time;  then  take  it  out  and  wash  off,  preparatory  to  the 
raising  process. 

Ninth  bath.  Raising : 

1  lb.     Olive  Oil, 

2  lbs.   White  Soap, 

160  lbs.    Soda  lye,  at  2°  Baume. 

Work  the  yarn  in  this  bath  for  twenty  minutes,  at  170°  F.  ; 
take  it  out,  and  wring  out. 

Tenth,  or  Finishing  Bath  :     To  sufficient  water,  add 

4  lbs.  White  Soap, 
6  ounces  Tin  Crystals, 
1^  ounces  Nitric  Acid. 

Enter  yarn  and  give  seven  turns,  at  a  gentle  heat ;  take  out 
the  yarn,  wash  off  and  dry. 

Scarlet  Red. 
50  lbs.  cotton-yarn. 
Steep  the  yarn  overnight  in   twelve  lbs.    sumac.       Next 
morning,  wring  out,  and  give  it  five  turns  in  the  spirit-tub,  at 
2^^°  (Twaddle's)  strength.     Wash  off  the  yarn,  and  wring  out, 
and  finish  off  with 
45  lbs.  Barwood, 

5  lbs.  Turmeric. 

Proceed  as  for  the  Barwood  Red. 

Another  Red. 
50  lbs.  cotton-yarn. 
Steep  the  yarn,  and  spirit  as  for  the  above  Scarlet  Red. 
Wash  and  wring  out.     Then  finish  with 
10  lbs.  Barwood, 
20  lbs.  Ground  Brazil-wood. 


168  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

Proceed  as  for  Bar  wood  Red. 

We  omitted  to  state  that  the  sumac  and  spirit  tubs  were 
used  cold. 

Salmon. 
50  lbs.  cotton-yarn. 

First  bath.        1  gallon  Nitrate  of  Iron. 

Second  bath.     2  lbs  Sal-soda. 

Give  the  yarn  seven  turns  first  in  the  iron-bath  ;  then  seven 
turns  in  the  soda-bath.  Wring  out  the  yarn  from  each  bath. 
Pass  the  yarn  through  each  bath  three  times,  and,  the  last 
time,  wash  it  off  before  hanging  it  up  to  dry. 

These  baths  are  to  be  cold. 

Aniline,  OR  Fuchsine  Red  (Fast). 
30  lbs.  cotton-yarn. 

First  bath.  Give  the  yarn  five  turns  in  Avarm  water,  in 
which  has  been  dissolved  three  lbs.  of  common  soap.  Take 
out  the  yarn,  and  wring  twice. 

Second  bath.  Boil  out  ten  lbs.  sumac  in  the  box  or  tub. 
Enter  the  yarn,  and  give  six  turns.  'Take  out.  Enter  into 
the 

Third  bath.  To  tub  of  cold  water  add  one  and  three-fourths 
lbs.  tin  crystals.  Give  the  yarn  six  turns.  Take  out,  and 
wring  and  wash. 

Fourth  bath.  Add  to  bath  of  water,  at  120°  F.,  three 
ounces  magenta  crystals.  Enter  the  yarn,  and  give  seven  or 
nine  turns.     Take  out  and  wash  off. 

We  can  obtain  a  bluer  shade  if  we  wish,  by  bringing  the 
fourth,  or  finishing  bath,  to  a  boil. 

We  get  a  good  red  on  cotton-yarn  by  the  following  method, 
but  it  is  not  so  permanent  as  the  above :  — 
50  lbs.  cotton-yarn. 

First  bath.  To  tub  of  water,  at  120°  F.,  add  three  lbs.  tin 
crystals.  Enter  the  yarn,  and  give  seven  turns.  Lay  the 
yarn  down  under  the  liquor  for  two  hours.  Then  take  out, 
and  wash  it  off'  well. 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  109 

Second  bath.  To  a  tub  of  cold  water  add  three  and  a  half 
ounces  of  magenta  crystals  (use  one-half  at  a  time  ;  that  is, 
add  half  of  it  to  the  tub).  Then  entep  the  yarn,  and  f^ive  it 
seven  turns.  Then  take  it  out,  and  add  the  remainder  of  the 
magenta  crystals.  Re-enter  the  yarn,  and  give  seven  turns 
more.     Take  out  and  wash  off. 

Salmon  Drab. 
20  lbs.  cotton-yarn. 

Boil  out  four  ounces  sumac,  and  eight  ounces  annotto.  Add 
the  clear  liquor  to  the  dye-tub.  Enter  the  yarn,  and  o-ive 
seven  turns.  Eaise  it  out,  and  add  to  the  liquor  one  lb.  alum. 
Re-enter  the  yarn,  and  give  five  turns.  Take  out  and  wash. 
The  same  shade  can  be  obtained  thus  : 
100  lbs.  cotton-yarn. 

Boil,  until  dissolved,  two  lbs.  cntch.  Add  it  to  the  dye- 
tub.  Enter  the  yarn,  and  give  five  turns.  Take  out  and 
wash  off. 

These  are  to  be  cold  baths  ;  but  we  have  obtained  a  better 
and  more  permanent  shade,  by  having  the  baths  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  about  100°  F.  Either  cold  or  warm,  the  shades  are 
good. 

Nankeen. 
20  lbs.  cotton-yarn. 
First  bath.     Dissolve  8  ounces  of  copperas  in  a  tub  of  cold 
water.    Enter  the  yarn,  and  give  ten  turns.    Take  out ;  wring, 
and  shake  the  yarn  out  well. 

Second  bath.  Dissolve  8  ounces  of  lime.  Let  it  settle. 
Use  the  clear  liquor  in  cold  water.  Enter  the  yarn,  and  <rive 
five  turns.  Take  out,  wash  off,  wring  and  dry.  This  color 
will  stand  the  bleaching  process. 

Linen  Dkab. 
20  lbs.  cottou-yarn. 
Boil  out  five  lbs.  chip  fustic.     Cool  down  with  cold  water 
to  100°  F.     Enter  the  yarn,  and  give  five  turns.     Raise  up  the 

22 


170  THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 

yarn,  and  add  to  the  bath  two  ounces  of  copperas.     Re-enter 
the  yarn,  and  give  live  turns.     Wash  off,  and  wring  out. 

Orange. 
12|^  lbs.  cottou-yarn. 

First,  or  Lead  and  Litharge  bath.  Four  lbs.  brown  acetate 
of  lead  ;  two  lbs.  litharge.  Boil  these  until  all  dissolved. 
Add  it  to  a  tub  of  cold  water. 

Second,  or  Lime  bath.  Dissolve  one  pail  of  lime  in  a  bar- 
rel of  water.  Let  it  settle.  Take  the  clear  solution,  and  add 
one-half  of  it  to  a  tub  of  cold  water.  Now  enter  the  yarn  in 
the  lime-bath,  and  turn  it  for  fifteen  minutes.  Take  it  out, 
and  enter  it  in  the  lead-bath.  Turn  for  the  same  time.  Take 
it  out,  and  re-enter  it  into  the  lime-bath  again.  .  Turn  it  for 
the  same  length  of  time.  Take  out,  and  re-enter  into  the 
lead-bath  again  for  the  same  time.  Wring  the  yarn  out  well 
after  coming  from  the  lead- bath  the  second  or  last  time. 

Third,  or  Chrome  bath.  Dissolve  in  a  tub  of  water,  at  100° 
F.,  one  and  a  half  lbs.  chrome.  Enter  the  yarn  in  this,  and 
give  five  turns.  Take  it  out,  and  enter  it  into  the  lead-bath. 
Give  it  five  turns.  Re-enter  it  into  the  chrome-bath,  and  give 
five  turns.     Take  out,  and  wring  well. 

Fourth,  or  Finishing  bath.  Take  the  remaining  half-barrel 
of  lime-water  (which  was  not  put  into  the  second  or  lime- 
bath),  and  add  it  to  a  tub  of  clean  water,  and  raise  the  tem- 
perature to  208°  F.  Now  enter  the  yarn  from  the  chrome- 
bath  into  this,  and  turn  for  fifteen  minutes.  Take  out,  and 
wash  off. 

Remai'ks  on  this  Orange. 

The  lead  and  litharge  are  to  be  dissolved  in  ten  quarts  of 
water.  Add  five  quarts  of  the  solution  to  what  is  termed  the 
lead-tub.  Then  add  two  and  a  half  quarts  when  you  enter  the 
yarn  for  the  second  time  in  the  lead-tub.  The  other  two  and 
a  half  quarts  you  must  add  to  the  lead-tub  when  you  enter  the 
yarn  from  the  chrome-bath  to  the  lead-bath,  as  described  in 
manipulating  the  third  or  chrome  bath. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  171 

You  will  notice  that  the  yarn  is  passed  twice  through  the 
chrome-bath.  The  first  time  it  is  passed  through,  you  must 
use  but  three-fourths  lb.  of  chrome.  Then  add  three-fourths 
lb.  more  the  second  time  it  is  passed  through. 

For  a  light  orange,  proceed  as  for  orange,  only  do  not  pass 
it  through  the  hot  lime,  or  fourth  bath. 

Tan  Brown. 

50  lbs.  cotton-yarn  : 

First  bath.      7  lbs.  Cutch, 

14  ounces  Blue  Vitriol. 

Boil  until  the  cutch  is  dissolved,  then  cool  down  the  solu- 
tion to  160°  Fahr.,  enter  the  yarn  and  give  seven  turns,  then 
sink  it  under  the  liquor  and  leave  it  there  overnight ;  next 
day  take  it  out  and  wring  it. 

Second  bath.  Dissolve  1^  lbs.  chrome  in  water  at  160° 
Fahr.,  enter  the  yarn  and  give  seven  turns  ;  take  out,  wash  off 
and  dry. 

Light   Tan. 
50  lbs.  cotton-yarn  : 
First  bath.      3^  lbs.  Cutch, 

7    ounces  Blue  Vitriol. 
Enter  yarn  and  turn  for  three-quarters  of  an  hour  at  160° 
Fahr. 

Seconji  bath.     1  lb.  Chrome. 

Enter  yarn  and  give  seven  turns  at  a  temperature  of  130 
Fahr.  ;  take  out,  wash  off  and  dry. 

Tan. 

50  lbs.  cotton-yarn  : 
First  bath.      Boil  for  half  an  hour, 

1^  lbs.  Sumac, 

^    lb.  Extract  Logwood, 

6    lbs.  Cutch. 
Enter  the  yarn  and  turn  for  twenty  minutes  at  a  boil. 


o 


172  THE   A3IEKICAN   DYER. 

Second  bath.     1  lb.  Blue  Vitriol, 
6  ounces  Chrome. 

Give  five  turns  in  this  at  150°  Fahr.  Now  add  to  the  first 
bath  six  ounces  chrome,  enter  the  yarn  and  give  throe  turns 
at  160°  Fahr.  ;  take  out,  and  wash  the  yarn  oS  and  dry. 

Another  Tan. 
50  lbs.  cotton-yarn  : 
First  bath.       Boil  up  for  half  an  hour, 
1\  lbs.  Sumac, 
^    lb.  Extract  of  Logwood, 
6    lbs.  Cutch. 
Enter  the  yarn  and  turn  for  half  an  hour  at  a  boil.     Take 
out  the  yarn. 

Second  bath.     1  lb.  Blue  Vitriol, 
^  lb.  Chrome, 
1  lb.  Copperas. 
Enter  yarn  at  150°   Fahr.,  and  turn  for  fifteen  minutes. 
Take  out  the  yarn.     Now  add  to  the  first  bath  two  ounces 
chrome  ;  enter  the  yarn  at  130°  Fahr.,  and  turn  the  yarn  for 
ten  minutes  ;  take  it  out,  wash  oflf  and  dry. 

Pink. 
50  lbs.  cotton-yarn. 
Boil  out  twelve  lbs.  hypernic  wood,  add  the  clear  solution 
to  a  tub  of  cold  water,  then  add  two  lbs.  tin  crystals.     Enter 
the  yarn  and  turn  for  three-quarters  of  an  hour ;  take  out,  and 
wash  oflf  in  cold  water. 

Black. 
50  lbs.  cotton-yarn. 
First  bath.     Boil  until  dissolved  forty  lbs.  of  cutch,  cool 
down  the  solution  to  190°  Fahr.     Enter  the  yarn  and  give 
ten  turns. 

Second  bath.     Add  three  lbs.  nitrate  of  iron  to  a  tub  of 
cold  water.     Enter  the  yarn  and  give  ten  turns. 

Third  bath.     Strip  the  yarn  in  lime-water ;  that  is,  pass  the 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  173 

yarn  into  a  tub  of  cold  water,  in  which  has  been  poured  the 
clear  liquor  from  two  lbs.  of  lime,  and  give  five  turns. 

Fourth  bath.  Boil  until  dissolved  twelve  lbs.  extract  of 
logwood,  cool  down  the  solution  to  160°  Fahr.  Enter  the 
yarn  and  give  nine  turns  in  half  an  hour ;  take  out  the  yarn 
and  add  to  the  liquor  one-quarter  lb.  chrome,  two  lbs.  cop- 
peras ;  re-enter  the  yarn  and  give  seven  turns. 

Fifth  bath.  Wash  off  in  soda-ash  and  oil,  one  pail  to  a 
tub  of  warm  water. 

To   MAKE    THE    OiL    WaSH. 

To  one  barrel  of  water  add 

25  lbs.  Soda-ash, 

10  gallons  Palm  Oil. 
Boil  until  they  are  incorporated ;  then  use  one  pail  of  this 
in  a  tub-box  of  warm  water  for  every  fifty  lbs.  of  yarn. 

Black. 

100  lbs.  cotton  yarn  : 
First  bath.     Boil  for  half  an  hour,  or  until  dissolved, 
16  lbs.  Extract  Logwood, 

2  lbs.  Extract  Fustic, 

3  lbs.  Soda-ash. 

Cool  down  the  solution  to  160°  F. 

Enter  the  yarn,  and  give  five  turns.  Lay  it  down  under 
the  liquor,  and  let  it  remain  there  until  next  morning.  Take 
it  up  and  wring  out. 

Second  bath.  Two  lbs.  blue  vitriol.  Turn  the  yarn  for  half 
an  hour,  at  160°  F.     Take  out. 

Third  bath.  One  and  one-half  lbs.  chrome.  Enter  the 
yarn  and  turn  for  half  an  hour  at  160°  F.  Take  out  the  yarn 
and  wring  it  well.  Now  enter  it  again  in  the  first  bath,  and 
give  it  seven  turns.     Take  up  and  enter  into  the 

Fourth  bath.  One  lb.  copperas.  Enter  the  yarn  at  160° 
F.,  and  give  seven  turns.     Take  out  and  wash  off. 


174  THE   AMERICAls^   DYER. 


Black. 
50  lbs.  cotton  yarn  : 

Add  to  the  box  or  tub, 
12  lbs.  Extract  of  Tamarack, 
8  lbs.  Copperas. 

Enter  the  yarn  at  a  boiling  heat,  and  turn  for  fifty  minutes 
at  a  boil.  Take  it  out  and  wring  out.  To  a  box  of  cold 
water,  add  three-quarters  lb.  of  chrome.  Enter  the  yarn, 
and  turn  for  half  an  hour.  Take  out  and  wring.  Strip  the 
yarn  in  a  bath  of  lukewarm  water,  to  which  has  been  added 
three  lbs.  of  whiting  (carbonate  of  lime).  After  giving  the 
yarn  seven  turns  in  this  bath,  take  it  out  and  wring  it,  and 
then  finish  off  in  a  fresh  bath  of  twenty  lbs.  logwood,  and 
three  lbs.  of  fustic.  Boil  these  woods  for  one  and  one-half 
hours,  then  cool  down  the  bath  to  150°  F.  Enter  the  yarn, 
then  turn  for  three-quarters  of  an  hour.  Then  raise  the  yarn 
and  add  to  the  solution  one-half  lb.  copperas  ;  re-enter  and 
turn  for  fifteen  minutes  ;  wash  off  the  yarn,  wring  out  and  dry. 

After  the  yarn  has  been  taken  out  of  the  finishing  bath,  if 
it  is  washed  in  cold  water,  to  which  has  been  added  a  little 
chrome ;  it  will  improve  the  color,  and  will  fix  the  logwood 
more  permanently  upon  the  yarn. 

For  the  next  fifty  lbs.  of  yarn,  add  to  the  liquor  of  the  first 
bath,  eight  lbs.  of  extract  of  tamarack,  and  six  lbs.  copperas  ; 
and  for  all  subsequent  lots  use  but  five  lbs.  extract  tamarack, 
and  four  lbs.  copperas.  By  keeping  the  first  liquor,  you  will 
thus  save  some  expense.  If  you  wish  for  a  bluish  black, 
put  a  little  lime  into  the  first  or  tamarack  bath. 

Aniline  Black  (a  French  recipe). 
For  every  two  lbs.  of  cotton-yarn,  make  up  a  bath  with 
one-half  lb.  of  blue  vitriol ;  add  one-half  gill  of  muriatic 
acid.  Give  the  yarn  seven  turns  in  this  bath.  Now  make 
up  a  bath  with  two  oz.  of  sulphide  of  copper,  to  every  quart 
of  water  used  in  the  bath.     Enter  the  yarn  in  this,  and  give 


THE    AMERICAlSr   DYEK.  175 

it  five  turns.     Take  out  the  yarn  and  wash  well.     Next,  dis- 
solve in  warm  water,  one  lb.  chlorate  of  aniline,  and  add  it 
to  a  bath  made  up  of 
10  quarts  Water, 

7  oz.        Chlorate  of  Potash, 

6  oz.  Sal-Ammoniac. 
Enter  the  yarn  and  give  seven  turns.  Take  it  out  and 
wring  the  yarn,  then  age  it  for  forty-eight  hours  in  a  temper- 
ature of  77°  F.  Next,  give  the  yarn  five  turns  in  a  bath 
composed  of  fifteen  grains  of  chl'ome  to  every  pound  of  water 
used  in  the  bath.  Give  the  yarn  five  turns  in  this  bath,  then 
take  it  out,  wash  ofl:*,  and  dry  it. 

Fast  Black. 
25  lbs.  cotton  yarn  : 

First  bath.     Color  the  yarn  a  dark  blue  in  the  copperas-vat. 

Second  bath.  In  a  tub  of  cold  water,  add  one  gill  oil  of 
vitriol ;  give  the  yarn  five  turns  in  this,  then  take  it  out,  and 
wash  ofi"  the  yarn. 

Third  bath.  Make  up  two  tubs  of  cold  water ;  to  one  add 
the  clear  liquor  from  six  lbs.  of  lime,  to  the  other  add  ten  lbs. 
copperas  ;  now  enter  the  yarn  into  the  lime-bath,  and  give  it 
five  turns  ;  take  out,  and  wring  it  out.  Now  give  it  five 
turns  in  the  copperas-bath,  then  wring  it  out,  re-enter  it  into 
the  lime-bath,  again  giving  it  five  turns,  and  wring  out;  re- 
enter in  the  copperas-bath  again,  giving  five  turns,  and  wring 
out. 

Fourth  bath.  Boil  out  fifteen  lbs.  logwood,  then  cool  down 
to  140°  ;  enter  the  yarn  and  give  seven  turns,  or  turn  until 
dark  enough;  take  out,  and  wash  ofi".  If  you  wish,  you  can 
wash  off  the  yarn  in  the  oil-bath.  (See  recipe  for  it,  page 
172.) 


17(3  THE    AMERIC^VX    DYER. 


REMARKS  ON  SILK-DYEING. 

Silk  is  more  generally  dyed  in  the  skein,  than  in  the  woven 
fabric.  It  is  first  boiled  in  soap  to  deprvie  it  of  the  gummy 
matter  which  forms  the  outer  coverinjr  of  the  cocoon  silk.  It 
is  then  scoured,  bleached,  and  sulphured.  It  is  not  sulphured 
unless  it  is  to  be  colored  with  very  bright  colors  and  delicate 
light  hues.  It  is  dyed  black  by  any  of  the  following  proc- 
esses ; 

First.     With  logwood  and' an  iron  mordant. 

Second.     AVith  logwood  and  bichromate  of  potash. 

Third.  Nutgalls,  and  other  substances  that  contain  tannic 
acid,  and  nitrate  of  iron  as  a  mordant. 

Fourth.  With  aniline  black,  by  the  recipes  of  Persoz, 
Jr.,  and  others,  by  the  use  of  chromate  of  copper,  and  oxal- 
ate of  aniline. 

The  first  and  second  processes  are  known  as  the  common 
or  ordinary  blacks,  the  third  process  being  known  as  fast 
black.  The  first  and  second  is  done  by  simply  giving  the 
silk  a  mordant  of  nitrate  of  iron,  then  finishing  it  off  with  a 
solution  of  logwood.  This  cheap  way  of  coloring  it  is  gen- 
erallj'  applied  to  light  silken  fabrics,  but  the  color  will  turn 
red  when  in  contact  with  even  weak  acids,  such  as  the  juices 
of  lemons,  oranges,  and  other  fruit  juices.  The  fast  blacks 
are  more  expensive,  but  are  not  afl'ected  by  weak  acids.  The 
third  process  mentioned  above  has  the  advantage  over  the 
other  processes,  by  increasing  the  weight  of  the  silk  (silk 
being  bought  and  sold  by  weight).  Silk  absorbs  from  sixty 
to  eighty  times  its  own  weight,  and  the  silk  used  for  shoe- 
laces even  two  hundred  per  cent,  of  the  dyeing  materials. 

In  Germany  there  is  an  indigenous  gall,  named  or  locally 
known  as  Knoppern,  which  contains  from  thirty  to  fifty  per 
cent,  of  tannic  acid,  which  is  used  in  the  extract  to  color  silk 
black.  In  England  they  use  nutgalls,  imported  from  the 
Levant,  for  coloring  silk  black. 

Although  the  increase  in  weight  of  the  silk  by  black  dyeing 

I 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  177 

may  be  advantageous  to  the  dealers,  so  much  foreign  matter 
in  it  is  not  only  injurious  to  it  in  regard  to  the  wearing  quali- 
ties of  it,  but  it  also  gives  rise  to  the  disagreeablcness  of  its 
crocking  or  smutting  while  the  material  is  being  worn,  and 
microscopic  researches  have  proved  that  the  color  adheres 
very  loosely  to  the  silk. 

The  process  for  dyeing  silk  black  is  a  very  simple  one.  It 
is  first  steeped  in  a  solution  of  nutgalls,  the  technical  phrase 
of  this  part  of  the  process  being  "galling."  After  this,  the 
silk  is  next  woVked  through  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  iron. 
Silk  is  colored  black  sometimes  by  first  being  colored  a  Prus- 
sian blue,  then  finished  ofi"  as  above  ;  but  more  frequently  a 
bluish  tinge  is  given  to  it  by  first  coloring  it  with  logwood, 
copperas,  and  some  blue  vitriol.  The  weighting  of  silk  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  silk,  being  an  animal  product,  it  has  the  prop- 
erty of  combining  with  tannic  acid,  and  thereby  will  become 
heavier."  The  greater  the  amount  of  tannic  acid  there  is  in 
the  coloring  solution,  or  the  oftener  it  is  immersed  in  the  nut- 
gall  solution,  the  heavier  the  fibre  will  become  to  a  certain 
extent.  It  is  not  particularly  essential  whether  copperas  or 
nitrate  of  iron  is  used,  but  the  nitrate  is  preferable.  The 
silk,  after  being  steeped  in  the  solution  of  nutgalls,  and  then 
passed  through  the  nitrate  of  iron  solution,  is  at  once  colored 
black,  but  if  it  were  passed  through  a  solution  of  copperas,  it 
would  at  first  be  colored  only  a  black-violet,  and  would  grad- 
ually become  a  black  by  exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  although 
in  both  cases  the  result  is  the  same  in  the  end.  The  use  of 
the  nitrate  of  iron  is  advantageous,  and  becomes  more  neces- 
sary where  the  galls  contain  a  small  amount  of  tannic  acid, 
but  for  heavy  weighting  of  the  silk  the  copperas  can  only  be 
used. 

The  coloring  of  silk  black  with  aniline,  chromate  of  copper, 
and  oxalate  of  aniline,  produces  excellent  results  as  far  as  we 
have  learned. 

Silk  is  colored  blue  either  with  indigo,  prussiate  of  potash, 
or  aniline.     The  indigo-vat  has  not  been  used  much  for  color- 

23 


178  THE    A3IERICAN    DYEK. 

ing  silk  since  the  discovery  of  coloring  it  with  the  prussiate  ol 
potash.  If  indigo  is  used  at  all  on  silk,  it  is  as  carmine  or 
purified  sulphate  of  indigo  {sulpJdndigotic  acid).  In  color- 
ing silk  Prussian  blue,  it  is  first  worked  through  a  solution  of 
nitrate  of  iron,  then  immersed  in  a  solution  of  yellow  prus- 
siate of  potash.  In  France,  the  iron  mordant  is  made  by  dis- 
solving copperas  in  nitric  acid,  and  is  known  as  Raymond's 
solution^  and  the  blue  produced  by  it  and  the  prussiate,  is 
called  the  Raymond  blue.  The  Napoleon  blue,  so  called,  is 
made  similar  to  the  Raymond  blue,  the  only  difference  being 
in  using  tin  crystals  in  the  iron  mordant  and  sulphuric  acid 
along  with  the. prussiate  of  potash.  This  blue  is  more  bril- 
liant than  the  Raymond  blue.  In  England,  a  tin  salt  is  always 
used  with  the  iron  mordant,  and  after  the  silk  has  been 
worked  a  certain  length  of  time  in  the  mordant,  it  is  then 
passed  through  a  boiling  soap-solution,  then  washed  off,  and 
next  steeped  in  a  solution  of  red  prussiate  of  potash,  acidu- 
lated with  muriatic  acid  ;  from  this  solution  it  is  passed,  or 
washed  oflT,  in  water  containing  ammonia,  which  adds  greatly 
to  its  brilliancy. 

Coloring  silk  with  aniline,  or  naphthaline  blue,  is  a  very 
simple  process.  It  only  requires  the  passing  of  the  silk 
through  a  solution  of  the  dyes,  the  solvent  of  the  dyes  being 
alcohol  or  wood-spirit,  or,  in  the  case  of  the  soluble  blues, 
water,  the  silk  being  left  in  the  aniline  solution  until  it  has 
assumed  the  desired  shape.  ' 

Silk  was  always  colored  red  and  pink  with  cochineal, 
safflower,  and  archil,  until  the  discovery  of  fuschine,  by 
which,  and  with  coralline,  Magdala  red,  the  reds  on  silk  are 
colored,  and  the  process  for  producing  reds  on  silk  with  these 
substances  is  as  simple  as  the  process  just  described  for  ani- 
line blue.  The  aniline  red  is  the  brightest,  purest,  and  deep- 
est of  all  red  dyes  for  silk,  yet  it  is  not  so  fast  as  Magdala 
red. 

Silk  is  dyed  yellow,  at  the  present  time,  mostly  by  picric 
acid,  and  some  dyers  adhere  to  the  old  method  of  first  giving 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  179 

it  a  mordiuit  of  alum,  then  finishing  off  with  a  sohition  of 
weld.  Tlie  ordinary  greens  are  produced  on  silk  by  first 
coloring  yellow  with  either  weld,  fustic,  or  picric  acid,  and 
then  finishing  with  indigo,  carmine,  or  aniline  blue;  but  the 
fast  greens  are  produced  by  first  coloring  it  blue  with  the 
prussiate  of  potash,  and  then  finishing  oil'  with  either  quer- 
citron or  fustic.  Greens  are  also  colored  on  silk  with  iodine 
(aniline  green).  Bed  is  printed  upon  silk  by  purpurine.  In 
the  first  place,  the  silk  pieces  are  mordanted  with  acetate  of 
alumina  (AI2O3,  2  C4H3O3  +  4  HO),  with  a  little  chalk  added 
to  the  solution  of  alumina,  then  passing  the  silk  through  a 
weak  solution  of  gum  tragacanth.  The  printing-paste  is  made 
with  one  and  a  half  ounces  of  purpurine,  and  half  a  pound  of 
starch  ;  heat  the  whole  together,  and  print  with  it  when  cold. 
After  the  printing,  the  silk  is  steamed,  then  passed  through 
soap,  &c. 

At  the  present  time,  most  of  the  colors  on  silk  are  produced 
by  the  different  aniline  dyes.  The  methods  or  processes  of 
fixing  the  aniline  colors  on  silk  are  confined  to  the  silk-d3''er, 
and  woolen-dyers  do  not  try  to  infcjrm  themselves  on  the  art 
of  silk-dyeing,  and  we  being  unacquainted  with  that  branch  of 
dyeing,  have  only  given  a  general  outline  of  the  methods 
employed,  and  leave  the  subject  for  those  who  are  prac- 
tically acquainted  with  the  various  processes  for  coloring  this 
vegeto-animal  substance  to  explain. 


Water  =  U,0. 
The  true  cQmposition  of  water  was  discovered  in  1781  by 
Cavendish.  The  discovery  made  by  him  was,  that  upon  burn- 
ing certain  and  known  amounts  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  in  a 
dry  vessel,  he  observed  that  water  was  formed  or  deposited 
on  the  sides  of  the  glass  vessel  in  which  he  tried  the  experi- 
ment, and  that  water  was  formed  in  quantity  exactly  equal  to 


180  THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 

the  gases,  in  weight,  which  had  disappeared.  He  also  ob- 
served that  these  gases,  would  unite  exactly  in  proportion  of 
two  volumes  of  hydrogen,  with  one  of  oxygen,  and  unite  by 
weight,  one  to  eight.  Water,  therefore,  consists  of  one  equiv- 
alent of  hydrogen  —  1,  and  one  equivalent  of  oxygen,  8  =  9, 
or  of  one  volume  of  hydrogen  and  half  a  volume  of  oxygen 
condensed  into  one  volume  of  steam.  On  these  data,  it  is 
easy  to  calculate  the  specific  gravity  of  steam,  for  its  density 
will  be  0.0689  (specific  gravity  of  hydrogen)  +  0.5512  (lialf 
the  specific  gravity  of  oxygen)  =  0.6201,  this  being  the  spe- 
cific gravity  of  steam. 

Water,  in  a  pure  state,  is  a  transparent  liquid,  without 
color,  taste,  or  smell.  Its  specific  gravity  is  assumed  to  be 
unity,  and  forms  the  term  of  comparison  for  that  of  solids  and 
liquids.  "  A  cubic  inch  of  water,  at  the  temperature  of  60  F., 
weisfhs  252.5  grains." 

Water  is  compressible,  to  a  small  extent,  which  was  proved 
first  by  Canton,  and  afterwards,  in  an  incontestable  manner, 
by  Perkins.  "  When  the  temperature  of  water  is  reduced  to 
32°  F.  (freezing  point),  it  becomes  a  solid,  or  ice,  and  has  the 
specific  gravity  of  0.9175  "  (Dufour) .  AVater  being  possessed 
of  such  extensive  solvent  powers,  cannot  avoid  being  contam- 
inated more  or  less  with  foreign  matters,  and  will  become 
.variously  impregnated  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  or 
strata  through  which  it  passes.  When  the  foreign  substances 
present  are  in  so  small  an  amount  as  not  to  materially  alter 
its  taste,  and  other  sensible  qualities,  it  constitutes  the  difier- 
ent  varieties  of  common  icater.  Prof.  I.  H.  Appleton  arranges 
the  different  kinds  of  water  under  the  following  heads  : — 

(a)  Rain-water. 

(h)  Brook,  or  river  water. 

(c)  Sea-water,  or  water  of  salt  lakes. 

(d)  Well-water. 

(e)  Mineral  spring-water. 


THE    AMERICA?^   DYER.  181 

The  professor  says  the  above  are  varieties  of  natural  water. 
"And  natural  waters  difter  simply  in  the  character  and  amount 
of  the  impurities  they  contain  ;  these  differences  are  due 
mainly  to  iJie  part  of  the  natural  circulation  of  the  ivater  at 
which  we  withdraw  the  sample  for  examination." 

"  The  evaporation  taking  place  at  the  surface  of  the  sea, 
and  of  all  bodies  of  water,  is  the  principal  source  of  the 
moisture  of  the  atmosphere  ;  after  this  moisture  has  con- 
densed as  rain,  the  most  of  it  returns  to  the  sea  by  brooks 
and  rivers." 

"  But  some  of  the  water,  owing  to  peculiar  surface  configu- 
ration, or  to  greater  or  less  permeability  of  surface  strata,  is 
either  arrested^  forming  salt  lakes,  or  diverted,  as  when  it 
sinks  below  the  surface  and  takes  a  subterranean  course.  In 
this  latter  case  it  often  re-appears  at  the  surface  by  natural 
fissures,  as  in  the  case  of  mineral  springs,  or  by  artificial 
ones,  as  in  case  of  wells." 

In  regard  to  rain-water,  he  states  that  "the  only  impurities 
of  carefully  collected  rain-water,  are  those  it  absorbs  in  pass- 
ing through  the  atmosphere.  They  are  oxygen,  nitrogen, 
carbonic-anhydride,  traces  of  ammonia  gas,  and  (especially 
after  thunder-storms)  ammonic-nitrate.  In  the  vicinity  of 
large  cities  (especially  where  are  many  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments) rain-water  also  collects  organic  matters,  dust  of 
various  kinds,  and  even  sulphuric  acid." 

"Of  course,  rain-water  collected  upon  roofs  acquires  im- 
purities of  greater  quantity  and  of  other  kinds,  from  the 
materials  of  the  roofs,  and  from  dust  which  may  have  been 
collected  there." 

"So  much  as  1.2  grains  of  solid  residue  to  the  gallon  of 
water  (American  wine-gallon),  has  been  obtained  from  the 
evaporation  of  rain-water  carefully  collected  in  the  city  of 
Paris." 

"Rivers  derive  their  water  from  direct  surface-drainage, 
and  from  springs  whose  water  has  taken  a  short  subterranean 
course." 


182  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

"  The  cl<a7'acfer  of  the  impurities  depends  upon  the  chanicter 
of  the  water-shed.  Thus,  water  from  a  sandy  soil,  contains 
little  irapurit}',  not  only  because  of  the  very  slight  solubility 
of  the  sand,  but  also  because  it  possesses,  to  some  extent,  the 
remarkable  power  of  removing  both  mineral  and  organic 
impurities  from  water  filtered  through  it." 

"The  amounts  of  impurities  likewise  vary.  The  waters  of 
rivers,  draining  thinly-settled  territory,  contain  to  the  gal- 
lon about  five  grains  of  impurities,  of  which  about  two  and  a 
half  grains  are  organic  matter.  Sometimes,  indeed,  river- 
water  is  scarcely  less  pure  than  rain-water.  The  amounts  of 
impurities  are,  of  course,  much  larger  when  the  river  receives 
the  drainage  of  farms  and  human  habitations  and  factories. 
Thus,  the  Thames,  at  London  Bridge,  contains  23.8  grains 
per  American  gallon." 

'Hiere  is  a  great  difierence  in  the  impurities  of  water,  as 
found  in  different  localities  and  different  sources,  but  all  the 
varieties  of  water  may  be  conveniently  arranged  under  two 
heads;  viz.,  soft  and  hard.  A  soft  water  is  one  which  con- 
tains but  few  impurities,  and  which,  when  used  with  soap, 
very  easily  forms  a  lather. 

By  hard  water  is  understood  that  kind  of  water  which  con- 
tains calcareous  or  magnesian  salts,  or  other  impurities,  that 
cause  the  soap  to  curdle  when  washing  with  it.  Tincture  of 
soap  is  the  easiest  and  most  convenient  test  for  ascertaining 
whether  the  water  is  Jtard  or  soft.  In  distilled  water  the 
tincture  will  produce  no  effect,  in  soft  water  it  will  change  to 
a  slight  opal  colour,  but  in  hard  water,  has  a  milky  appearance. 
This  milky  appearance  is  due  to  the  formation  of  an  insoluble 
compound,  between  the  oily  acids  of  the  soap  and  the  lime  or 
magnesia  of  the  foreign  salt. 

The  usual  foreign  substances  contained  in  common  water, 
besides  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  and  matters  held  in  a  state  of 
mechanfcai  suspension,  are  carbonic  acid,  sulphate  and  car- 
bonate of  lime,  and  common  salt.  Carbonic  acid  is  detected 
with  lime,  provided  the  lime-water  is  added  before  the  water 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  183 

to  be  tested  has  been  boiled.  The  boiling  of  the  water  would 
drive  off  the  acid,  so  that  there  would  be  no  precipitate 
given  by  the  addition  of  lime-water.  The  presence  of  lime 
in  water  is  shown  by  there  being  a  precipitate  thrown  down, 
when  nitrate  of  baryta  is  added.  After  boiling  the  water  add 
•oxalate  of  ammonia,  which  will  throw  down  precipitates  if 
lime  is  present  in  the  water.  The  nitrate  of  baryta  test 
shows  the  presence  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  after  boiling  the 
water,  the  ammonia  indicates  lime  not  held  in  solution  by 
carbonic  acid.  Carbonate  of  lime,  when  held  in  solution  by 
an  excess  of  carbonic  acid,  may  be  detected  by  boiling  the 
water,  which  causes  the  carbonate  of  lime  to  precipitate  ;  but 
even  after  the  boiling,  there  is  still  enough  carbonate  of  lime 
left  in  the  water  to  give  a  precipitate  with  acetate  of  lead,  car- 
bonate of  lime  being  itself,  to  a  minute  extent,  soluble  in 
water.  Distilled  water,  and  pure,  are  useful  for  all  purposes 
of  the  arts ;  yet  a  water  may  be  soft  and  useful  for  bleaching 
and  washing,  and  still  deleterious  in  dyeing ;  and  it  may  be 
hardy  and  still  be  good  water  for  dyeing  most  colors.  The 
terms  hard  and  soft  do  not  denote  impurities  of  any  particu- 
lar kind.  The  impurities  in  water  are  often  so  minute  that 
ordinary  tests  do  not,  for  some  time,  detect  them.  The  best 
method  of  proceeding  will  be  to  apply  the  tincture  of  soap 
test  (dissolve  white  soap  in  alcohol,  this  is  tincture  of  soap), 
as  a  sort  of  guide.  Next,  to  try  the  water  with  delicate  test- 
paper;  then  to  observe  if  it  has  an  alkaline  or  acid  re-action. 
Now,  take  a  gallon  of  the  water  to  be  tested  and  boil  it  down 
to  one  pint ;  pour  this  into  a  narrow  jar  and  let  it  remain 
until  it  has  settled,  pour  off  the  clear  liquid  into  another  ves- 
sel, and  preserve  the  turbid  part  for  examination.  This 
turbid  precipitate  will,  no  doubt,  be  carbonate  and  sulphate 
of  lime,  with  a  trace  of  iron.  If  these  substances  are  in  the 
precipitate,  by  adding  to  it  some  muriatic  acid,  the  carbonate 
of  lime  and  iron  will  dissolve  with  eflfervescence,  while  the 
sulphate  of  lime  will  remain  undissolved.  A  few  drops 
of  tannic  or  'gallic  acid  added  to  a  portion   of  the  pint  of 


184  ■  THE    AMERICAX   DYER. 

water  will  turn  it  a  bluish  color,  if  iron  is  present  in  it. 
Divide  the  water  which  was  boiled  down  to  a  pint  into  five 
portions,  and  put  them  into  five  small  glasses ;  to  one,  add 
gallic  acid  ;  it  will  give  a  bbiish  color  if  iron  is  present.  To 
the  second  portion  add  a  few  drops  of  oxalate  of  ammonia ; 
if  lime  is  present  there  will  be  a  white  precipitate  thrown 
down.  To  fhe  third  portion  add  some  phosphate  of  soda, 
and  stir  it  up  well ;  if  the  water  contains  magnesia  there  will 
be  a  white  precipitate  left.  To  the  fourth  portion  add  chlo- 
ride of  barium,  and  if  a  white  precipitate  is  obtained  that 
does  not  re-dissolve  by  adding  a  little  nitric  acid  to  it,  then 
the  water  contains  sulphuric  acid.  To  the  fifth  portion  add 
nitrate  of  silver ;  if  a  white  precipitate  is  formed  and  does 
not  re-dissolve  by  the  addition  of  nitric  acid,  then  the  water 
contains  muriatic  acid.  These  tests  and  the  nitric  acid  must 
be  perfectly  pure,  or  no  dependence  can  be  placed  upon  the 
results. 

Parkes  gives  the  following  tests  for  water  in  his  chemical 
essays  :  — 

TESTS   USED  AND  WHAT  THEY  "WILL  DETECT. 

The  oxalates,  or  oxalic  acid,    .  Lime. 

Litmus,  ....  Uncombined  acids. 

Tumeric  paper,       .         .  .  Alkalies  and  alkaline  earths. 

Chloride  of  platinum  in  alcohol.  Potash. 

Polished  iron  or  steel,     .  .  Copper  (with  precipitates). 

Phosphate  of  soda,  .  .  Magnesia. 

Lime-water,  ....  Cabonic  acid. 

Chloride  of  lime,    .         .         .  Carbonated  alkalies. 

Salts  of  barytes,     .         .         .  Sulphuric  acid  or  sulphates. 

The  above  substances  are   sometimes   so  minute  that  the 
common  trests  do  not  always  detect  them. 

"  The  solvent  powers  of  water  are  of  a  very  wide  range ; 
there  are  but  few  solid,  liquid,  or  gaseous  substances  which 


THE   AMEltlCAN   DYER.  185 

are  not  dissolved  to  some  extent  by  it.  In  case  of  rain-water, 
the  solvent  powers  are  somewhat  further  increased  by  car- 
bonic-anhydride, which  it  acquires  from  the  atmosphere, 
and  which,  after  fiilling,  it  acquires  in  still  greater  quantity 
from  the  decaying  organic  matters  with  which  it  comes  in 
contact  in  tiltering  through  the  suface  strata.  Many  carbon- 
ates, as  calcic  carbonate,  which  are  only  very  slightly  soluble 
in  pure  water,  are  much  more  so  in  water  containing  carbonic- 
anhydride,  with  which  they  are  supposed  to  form  bicarbon- 
ates. 

"  Well-water  almost  invariably  contains  the  following  sub- 
stances : — 

"  Ca  SO4,  ....  Gypsum. 

Ca  CO3,  ....  Chalk. 

Mg  CO3,  ....  Magnesia. 

NaCl,  .  .         .         .  Common  Salt. 

K  CI. 

Si  Oo,  ....  Sand. 
Fe  CO3. 

,Al2(C03)3. 

Organic  Matter. 
Occasionally  it  contains 

Ca  (NOs),,         .         .  .     Calcic  Nitrate. 

(NH4)2  CO3        .         .         .     Amnionic  Carbonate. 

"A  well-water  containing,  per  gallon,  twenty  grains  of 
mineral  matters  of  the  character  of  those  first  enumerated, 
and  from  three  to  five  grains  of  vegetable  matters,  and  which 
is  free  from  ammonium  compounds  is  considered  suitable  for 
drinking  purposes.  Drinking  waters  containing  larger  quan- 
tities of  mineral  matters  are  thought  to  produce  the  gravel 
and  similar  diseases. 

"  When  wells  are  situated  in  thickly  peopled  districts  their 

24 


186  THE    A3IERICAN    DYER. 

waters  often  become  impregnated  with  animal  matters,  which 
have  come  from  cesspools,  &c.  These  animal  matters,  by 
their  partial  decomposition,  give  rise  to  ammonia,  nitrates, 
and  niti'ites  which  thus  serve  as  indicators  to  the  nitrogeneous 
matters  in  which  they  originated.  If  such  waters  are  used 
for  drinking  waters,  they  become  highly  injurious  to  health." 

"For  domestic  purposes,  as  washing  and  cooldng,  it  is  very 
desirable  to  use  a  water  containinof  less  mineral  matter  than 
the  amounts  above  specified.  Much  calcic  and  magnesic  salts 
impart  to  the  water  the  peculiarity  termed  hai'dness." 

"By  use  of  hard  water  with  soap,  the  calcium  and  magne- 
sium combine  with  the  fatty  acid-radical  of  the  soap,  and  thus 
form  insoluble,  hard,  granular,  and  inactive  calcium  and  mag- 
nesium soaps,  which  do  not  froth,  and  do  not  possess  the 
detergent  properties  of  sodium  and  potassium  soaps."  — 
Appleton^s  Quantitative  Analysis, 

Water  is  used  in  the  dye-house  as  a  solvent,  yet  its  solvent 
property  depends  greatly  upon  certain  laws,  the  action  being 
the  mutual  attraction  between  the  fluid  and  solid,  and  will 
become  weaker  as  these  attractions  are  satisfied.  For  exam- 
ple :  we  will  tal^e  a  piece  of  alum,  and  suspend  one  part  of  it 
in  water ;  the  water  will  be  immediately  drawn  or  sucked  up 
into  the  pores  of  the  alum,  and  will  adhere  to  the  particles  of 
the  alum  ;  but  if  more  water  than  what  is  sufficient  to  wet  the 
particles  is  allowed  to  enter  the  solid  parts  of  the  alum,  the 
alum  will  break,  dissolve,  and  disappear  in  the  water.  Yet 
the  action  of  the  water  upon  the  salt  is  limited,  it  being  very 
powerful  at  first ;  but  the  alum  becoming  difi'used  through  the 
water,  the  action  of  the  w-ater  upon  the  solid  parts  of  the 
alum  will  gradually  decrease  as  the  water  becomes  more  and 
more  saturated  with  the  alum,  until  it  will  dissolve  no  more. 
We  then  say  that  the  water  has  become  entirely  saturated 
with  the  salt. 

When  any  of  the  crystallized  salts  are  put  into  a  pail  or 
other  vessel,  and  water  poured  upon  it,  and  allowed  to  stand 
for  a  length  of  time,  we  find  that  it  is  a  long  time  in  dissolv- 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  187 

ing,  because  the  water  which  surrounds  the  crystallized  salt 
becomes  saturated,  and  is  therefore  incapable  of  dissolvino^ 
any  more  of  the  salt,  as  the  salt,  from  its  weight,  remains  at 
the  bottom  of  the  pail  or  vessel.  To  illustrate  this,  we  will 
take  three  glasses,  each  being  tilled  with  water ;  we  now  add 
to  each  an  equal  quantity  of  blue  vitriol.  In  one  we  will  let 
the  crystals  remain  at  the  bottom  of  the  glass  ;  the  second  one 
we  will  stir  constantly  ;  we  will  suspend  the  blue  vitriol  upon 
the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  third  glass.  We  now  can 
observe  the  action  of  the  water  in  each  case,  and  observe  the 
difference  in  time  which  it  requires  to  entirely  dissolve  all  the 
blue  vitriol,  the  result  being,  that  which  was  suspended  upon 
the  water's  surface  is  the  soonest  dissolved. 

Hot  water,  every  dyer  knows,  will  dissolve  more  of  a  crys- 
tallized salt  than  cold  water  will.  The  relation  of  the  differ- 
ent dissolving  powers  of  water,  at  different  degrees  of  tem- 
perature, is  very  remarkable.  Some  of  the  salts  will  dis- 
solve as  well  at  one  degree  of  temperature  as  at  another,  and 
equally  as  readily :  common  salt,  for  instance.  Some  dis- 
solve the  least  in  cold  water,  and  will  increase  gradually  as 
the  water  becomes  heated.  Some  salts  increase  in  their  solu- 
bility rapidly,  until  the  temperature  of  the  water  arrives  at  a 
certain  heat,  after  which  the  salt  will  become  less  soluble, 
while  such  substances  as  lime  will  dissolve  more  readily  in 
cold  than  in  hot  water.  One  pound  of  lime  will  dissolve  in 
sixty-six  gallons  of  water,  at  32°  F.,  but  it  requires  seventy- 
five  gallons,  at  60°  F.,  to  dissolve  the  same  amount.  Boiling 
water  will  not  contain  but  one-half  of  the  lime  that  water  at 
32°  can.  This  fact  is  well  known  to  cotton-yarn  dyers,  as 
they  often  experience  these  effects  in  the  liaising  of  chrome- 
oranges. 

"Water,  besides  having  the  property  of  dissolving  solid 
bodies,  has  also  the  same  property  for  dissolving  gases  and 
holding  them  in  solution.  In  the  latter  case,  cold  water  is  a 
more  powerful  solvent  for  the  gases  than  hot  water  is.  There 
are  gases,  if  held  in  solution  by  water  which  is  used  in  col- 


188  THE   AMERICAJS^   DYER. 

oring,  that  would  be  very  injurious  (especially  in  cotton  dye- 
ing), and  as  many  of  these  gases  are  floating  about  in  the 
dye-house,  they  may  be,  in  small  quantities,  absorbed  by 
the  water  contained  in  the  dye-tubs,  and  the  cause  of  the 
imperfect  color  which  is  obtained  may  not  be  known  or 
thought  of. 

The  following  are  a  few  of  the  gases  present  in  the  dye- 
house  :  — 

Nitrous  oxide.  Chlorine.  Carbonic  acid. 

Sulphurous  acid.  Sulphuretted  hydrogen. 

Any  one  of  these  gases,  in  water,  will  aflfect  colors,  and 
they  are  all,  to  a  more  or  less  extent,  gases  which  are  given 
off  in  a  dye-house. 

It  has  been  stated  by  some  chemists,  that  water  was  entirely 
neutral,  and  as  having  no  action  upon  matters  put  into  it. 
This  will  appear  doubtful  to  the  practical  dyer,  as  his  experi- 
ence has  taught  him  that  the  water  in  different  localities  has 
a  different  effect  upon  the  same  dj'estuff.  He  also  finds  thai 
certain  kinds  of  water  are  better  for  his  colors  than  other 
kinds,  which,  manifests  a  difference  either  in  the  constitution  or 
condition  of  the  water.  This  difference  in  water  depends 
upon  foreign  matters  which  are  dissolved  in  it.  Therefore,  it 
would  be  a  great  object  for  the  dyer  to  always  have  pure 
water.  But  this  is  almost  impossible  for  him  to  have,  although 
there  a  number  of  rivers  in  the  New  England  States  that  are 
as  pure  as  it  is  possible  to  have  (unless  we  employ  distilled 
water),  and  there  are  not  any  foreign  matters  in  them,  that 
would  injure  the  most  delicate  color  we  would  wish  to  place 
upon  any  fabric.  As  we  stated  above,  it  would  be  an  object 
for  the  dyer  to  have  pure  water.  It  would  also  be  a  great 
object  to  him  to  know  what  are  the  matters  or  ingredients 
which  are  in  the  water  he  was  using,  so  that  he  could  either 
counteract  their  effects,  and  obviate  their  consequences,  or 
else  render  them  subservient  to  his  purposes.     The  great  and 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  189 

most  practical  importance  of  water  to  the  dj^er,  is  not  only  its 
solvent  powers,  but  also  its  neutrality.  The  best  water  we 
have  used  for  coloring  black,  and  other  sadden  colors,  were 
the  western  waters,  and  especially  that  at  Lawrenccburgh, 
Ind.,  which,  by  analysis,  wus  found  to  contain  sulphuric, 
muriatic,  and  carbonic  acids,  large  quantities  of  lime,  and, a 
trace  of  iron,  the  solid  contents  of  which  were  135  grains  per 
American  gallon.  No  doubt,  these  ingredients  existed  in  the 
water  as  carbonate,  muriate,  and  sulphate  of  lime,  and  the 
carbonate  of  iron.  In  coloring  with  the  above-named  water, 
we  found  that  it  required  a  much  less  quantity  of  logwood  to 
produce  a  jet  black  than  it  did  in  the  Eastern  States.  This  is 
accounted  for  thus :  lime  aids  or  assists  the  water  in  dissolv- 
ing the  coloring-matter  contained  in  the  logwood,  and,  as 
dyers  say,  springs  the  wood  more.  Lime,  as  well  as  soda-ash 
in  water,  greatly  assists  the  water  in  extracting  the  color  from 
camwood,  as  well  as  from  logwood. 


ACIDS. 

Acids  are  compounds  which  are  capable  of  uniting,  in  defi- 
nite proportions,  with  alkalies,  earths,  and  ordinary  metal- 
lic oxides,  with  the  eflect  of  producing  a  compound  in  which 
the  properties  of  its  constituents  are  mutually  destroyed. 
Most  acids  have  a  sour  taste,  and  possess  the  power  of  chang- 
ing vegetable  blues  to.  red  ;  and,  though  these  properties  are 
by  no  means  constant,  yet  they  afford  a  convenient  means  of 
detecting  acids  applicable  to  most  cases. 

The  above  explanation  of  the  nature  of  an  acid  is  that  which  is 
usually  given  ;  but,  according  to  strict  definition,  acids  are  com- 
pounds having  a  strong  electro-negative  energy,  and,  therefore, 
possessing  a  powerful  affinity  for  electro-positive  compounds, 
such  as  alkalies,  earths,  and  ordinary  oxides.  It  is  this  antag- 
ouism  in  the  electrical  conditions  of  these  two  orreat  classes  of 


190  THE    A3IERICAN   DYER. 

chemical  compounds  that  gives  rise  to  their  mutual  afBnit}', 
which  is  so  much  tjie  stronger  as  the  contrast  in  this  respect  is 
greater.  In  the  majority  of  cases,  the  elective-negative  com- 
pound, or  acid,  is  an  oxidized  body,  but  by  no  means  necessarily 
so.  When  an  acid  does  not  contain  oxygen,  hydrogen  is  usually 
present.  These  peculiarities  in  composition  have  given  rise 
to  the  division  of  acids,  b}^  some  writers,  into  oxacids  and 
hydracids.  Vegetable  acids,  for  the  most  part,  contain  both 
hydrogen  and  oxygen.  Strictly  speaking,  there  are  but  three 
kinds  of  acids;  viz.,  sulphuric,  muriatic,  and  nitric  acids. 
There  are  a  large  number  of  substances  termed  acids,  such  as 
oxalic,  acetic,  tartaric,  citric,  benzoic,  gallic,  tannic  acid,  &c., 
&c. 

"Acids  are  the  antagonistic  principles  to  alkalies.  They 
neutralize  alkalinity,  and  form  salts  by  their  union  with  alka- 
lies. They  combine  with  earths  also,  and,  in  general,  these 
compounds  are  soluble  ;  but  there  some  that  are  not  soluble. 
They  act  upon  metals,  oxidizing,  combining  with,  and  dissolv- 
ing them,  thus  bringing  the  base  of  colors  into  a  tangible  form, 
so  that  the  coloring  principle  will  operate  upon  them..  They 
will  modifx'  the  shade  of  color,  changing  the  purples  to  red  or 
orange,  and  the  reds  to  orange  or  yellow,  making  the  yellows 
brighter,  lighter,  and  more  lemon-colored  in  their  shade. 

"Thus  we  see  the  primary  importance  of  these  substances 
in  the  art  of  dyeing,  and  the  necessity  of  their  presence  in 
colors." 

Acids  enter  into  the  composition  of  all  the  cry  stall  izable 
salts,  or  chemical  compounds,  or  mordants  which  have  been 
noticed  in  this  work,  and  are  the  medium  or  cause  of  solu- 
bility of  almost  all  of  their  radicals.  Acids,  in  an  uncombined 
or  free  state,  attack  vegetable  fibre,  and  injure  its  strength, 
even  when  somewhat  diluted  with  water.  Alkalies  operate 
upon  animal  matter  in  the  same  respects  as  acids  do  upon 
vegetable  matter.  Acids  arc  not  very  injurious  to  wool, 
unless  used  to  excess,  and  of  considerable  strength,  or  aided 
by  heat.     AVooIen  fabrics  will  bear  a  greater  amount  of  acids, 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  191 

without  injury,  than  they  can  hear  the  use  of  an  alkali.  The 
acids  seem  to  comhine  somewhat  with  the  wool,  causinor  the 
goods  to  full  and  .scow?'  with  more  difficulty.  When  either  of 
the  three  proper  acids  are  combined  with  other  elements,  they 
are  called  salts.  Thus,  sulphuric  acid  and  iron,  fur  sulphate 
of  iron-  (salt  of  iron) . 

We  have  below  condensed,  from  Napier's  Chemistry,  the 
nature  and  nomenclature  of  salts. 

"The  acids  combine  with  metals,  and  form  compounds, 
which  are  termed  salts.  The  names  of  these  also  denote  their 
composition  :  the  salt  formed  between  the  acid  terminating  in 
ic  and  a  base,  ends  with  ate;  that  formed  by  the  acid  ter- 
minating in  ous^  ends  with  ite,  the  name  of  the  element  with 
which  the  acid  combines,  being  added.  Thus,  suli)hnric  acid 
(SO3)  and  iron  (Fe)  form  sulphate  of  iron;  sulphurous  (SO2) 
and  iron  (Fe)  form  sulphite  of  iron. 

"When  these  acids  unite  elements  or  bases  in  different  pro- 
portions, the  same  prefixes  are  used  as  with  oxides.  If  one 
proportion  of  acid  unites  with  one  of  another  element,  the 
compound  is  termed  j9ro/o, —  as  protosulphate  of  iron  ;  if  two 
of  acid  and  one  of  metal,  the  compound  has  hi,  —  as  bisulphate 
of  iron,  &c.  Per  is  also  used,  as  denoting  the  highest  pro- 
portions, as  when  three  equivalents  of  acid,  unite  with  two 
equivalents  of  iron,  the  salt  is  termed  persulphate  of  iron. 

"Sometimes  we  have  the  metal  uniting  with  acids,  forming 
basic  salts."  For  instance,  if  one  proportion  of  oxygen  com- 
bines with  three  of  metal,  the  prefix  trisub,  or  tridi,  is  occa- 
sionally used  ;  but  this  is  not  at  all  times  convenient.  The 
best  plan  is  to  denote  such  compounds  as  basic,  and  then 
apply  the  ordinary  prefixes,  such  as  bibasic,  tribasic,  &c.,  as 

CuoO,  bibasic  oxide  of  copper. 
CugO,  tribasic  oxide  of  copper. 

Where  we  have  two  proportions  of  metal  to  one  of  acid,  or 
the  equivalents  or  proportions  of  metal  to  one  of  acid,  the 


192  THE  america:n^  dyek. 

same  prefixes  are  used  as  above  stated  ;  the  two  proportions 
of  metal  to  one  of  acid,  is  termed  bibasiC'Sulphate  of  copper, 
and  the  other  named  preparations  are  termed  tribasic-s\i\phate 
of  copper.  Where  water  is  combined  with  salts  or  oxides, 
they  are  termed  hydrates,  or  hydraus,  to  distinguish  them 
from  substances  that  contain  no  water,  which  are  called  anhy- 
draus  ;  thus,  hydrate  of  potash,  or  h^'drous  potash,  KO  HO  ; 
anhydrous  potash,  KO. 

Double  salts  are  two  salts  united  together  to  form  a  definite 
compound,  such  as  alum,  that  being  a  double  salt  of  sulphate 
of  alumina,  and  sulphate  of  potash. 

"  In  the  name  of  a  compound  ending  in  ide,  the  base  or  ele- 
ment in  which  oxygen  is  combined,  is  named  last,  as 

Oxide  of  iron         (Fe  O) ,  composed  of  oxygen  and  iron. 
Chloride  of  iron    (FeCl),         "        of  chlorine  and  iron. 
Iodide  of  iron        (Fel),  "        of  iodine  and  iron. 

Oxide  of  sulphur  (OS),  **        of  oxygen  and  sulphur. 

Oxide  of  nitrogen  (ON) ,  "        of  oxygen  and  nitrogen." 

"  But  in  those  compounds  that  contain  acid  properties,  the 
base  is  placed  at  the  beginning,  thus  : 

Sulphuric  acid,  ....  sulphur  and  oxygen. 
Nitric  acid,  .....  nitrogen  and  oxygen. 
Hydrochloric  acid  (muriatic  acid),    hydrogen  and  chlorine." 

Rules  for  Naming  Compounds. 

"  When  two  elements  combine  together,  and  the  compound 
formed  has  not  acid  properties,  the  name  ends  in  ide,  such  as 
oxide,  chloride,  bromide,  rodide,  &c. 

"  Sometimes  uret  is  used  instead  of  ide,  such  as  in  sulj>huret, 
carburet,  phosphuret,  &c.  But  ide  is  now  generally  adopted 
even  for  these,  giving  sulphides,  carbonides,  and  phosphides.^' 

"When  the  compound  formed  by  the  union  of  the  elements 
has  acid  properties,  the  name  ends  in  ic,  or  oics;  thus  we  have 


THE   AJVIERICA^   DYER.  193 

sulphuric,  sulphurous,  nitric,  nitrous,  chloric,  chlorous  acids. 
Thus,  these  elements,  uniting  together  in  different  multiples, 
have  prefixes  added  to  express  the  number  of  proportions. 
Thus,  proto  denotes  one  proportion  ;  dento,  or  hi,  two  propor- 
•  tions;  trito,  three  proportions;  per  denotes  uo  particular 
number,  only  the  highest  proportion. 

"  For  examples,  take  the  compounds  nitrogen  and  oxygen : 

NO,   protoxide  of  nitrogen. 
NO2,  binoxide  of  nitrogen. 
NO3,  nitrous  acid. 
NO4,  peroxide  of  nitrogen. 
NO5,  nitric  acid. 

"Thus  we  see,  the  full  name  of  the  substance  not  having 
acid  properties,  denotes  its  composition .  In  the  case  of  acids, 
it  does  not  tell  the  number  of  elements  combined,  as  with 
oxides,  ous,  simply  signifying  that  it  has  less  oxygen  than 
another  acid  composed  of  the  same  elements,  and  which  ends 
in  ic."  \_For  instance,  nitrous  acid  contains  hut  two  proportions 
of  oxygen  {JSfO.i)^  ivhile  nitric  acid  (-ZVO5)  contains  Jive  pro- 
portions of  oxygen. 1 

"  There  are  sometimes  more  than  two  acids  formed  by  the 
combining  of  the  same  elements.  In  this  case,  if  the  oxygen 
is  less  than  in  the  acid  whose  name  terminates  with  ous,  the 
prefix  Jiypo  is  put  to  the  name  of  the  ous  acid.  If  there  be 
more  oxygen  than  in  the  ous  acid,  and  less  than  the  ic  acid, 
the  same  prefix  is  made  to  the  last-named  acid. 

"  Finally,  when  there  is  more  oxygen  present  than  in  the 
acid  whose  name  terminates  with  ic,  the  prefix  per  is  used  as 
in  oxides.     Thus,  for  examples,  to  illustrate  these  terms  : 

S2O2,  hypo-sulphurous  acid. 

502,  sulphurous  acid. 
82O5,  hypo-sulphuric  acid. 

503,  sulphuric  acid." 

25 


J  94  THE  a:merica2^^  dyer. 

"Any  acid  having  more  oxygen,  in  relation  to  the  sulphur, 
than  the  last-named  in  the  above  list,  would  be  called  per- 
sulphuric  acid.  It  will  thus  be  seen,  that  the  names  of  the 
compounds  denote  their  composition,  and  gives  an  idea  of 
their  leading  properties." 

"The  term  sesqui,  —  as  sesquioxide, — is  often  used,  and 
means  one  and  a  half  of  an  equivalent,  which,  as  may  be 
inferred  from  what  has  been  said,  cannot  take  place.  Never- 
theless, the  name  is  conveniently  retained  to  denote  such  com- 
pounds as  have  two  of  one  element,  and  three  of  another,  such 
as  sesquioxide  of  iron  (FcoOg),  also  termed  peroxide,  which  is 
composed  of  two  of  iron  (Fcj),  and  three  of  oxygen  (03= 

FeA). 

"Sometimes    one    proportion    of    oxygen,    chlorine,   &c., 

combines  with  two  proportions  of  a  base  as  a  metal ;  such 

compounds  have  the  prefix  sy6  or  di  thus, — 

FcjO,  sub-oxide  of  iron,  or  dinoxide  of  iron. 
CugCl,  sub-chloride,  or  dichloride  of  copper." 

As  regards  the  constitution  of  salts,  it  is  not  our  intention 
to  define  the  merits  of  the  difterent  views  taken  by  chemists 
in  regard  to  the  constitution  of  chemical  salts,  but  merely  and 
briefly  to  give  a  general  idea  to  the  student  in  dyeing.  For 
an  example  we  will  take  sulphuric  acid.  The  composition  of 
this  acid  is  given  by  Berzelius  thus,  SO3.  Now  we  find  that 
SO3  is  a  solid  crystalline  compound,  which  has  no  acid  prop- 
erties until  it  is  combined  with  one  proportion  of  water,  and 
its  formula  would  be  SO3  +  HO  (hydrous  sulphuric  acid). 

Sir  H.  Davy  thought  that  as  sulphuric  acid,  SO3,  had  no  acid 
properties,  and  was  not  capable  of  combining  with  any  body 
as  such,  unless  in  union  with  water,  it  was  the  more  probable 
that  what  is  termed  hydrated  sulphuric  acid  (SOg-j-llO), 
might  be  the  correct  composition  of  sulphuric  acid,  rather 
than  the  formula  SO3,  and  should  be  represented  thus,  SO4  + 
H,  the    hydrogen    being    the    base   or   metal,  and    that   the 


THE    AMEEICAN   DYER.  195 

presence  of  hydrogen  is  an  essential  qnalification  to  the  acid, 
so  that  a  piece  of  iron  being  pnt  into  sulphuric  acid  the  re- 
action would  be  expressed  thus,  SO^II  +  Fe  =  S04Fe  +  H, 
or  thus, — 

0,1      •       -J  ^  H  —  hydrogen  gas. 
Sulphuric  acid  <  j       o      o 

^  *>  sulphate  of  iron. 
Iron  =  Fe   > 

A  greater  number  of  our  modern  chemists  express  sulphuric 
acid  thus,  H^SOi- 

Names  have  been  proposed  in  accordance  with  Sir  H.  Davy's 
views;  as,  for  instance,  the  SO4  is  to  be  termed  suJphion; 
therefore  the  formula  SO4  -|-  H  being  termed  sulphuric  acid, 
will  be  sulphionide  of  hydrogen,  instead  of  sulphuric  acid.  It 
will,  however,  be  a  dithcult  task  to  introduce  such  names  into 
science  ;  even  if  they  were  approved  of,  their  use  will  haye  to 
be  a  slow  but  ofiadual  growth. 

The  views  that  are  given  above  of  the  true  formula  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  can  be  applied  to  all  hydrated  acids.  The  for- 
mula of  nitric  acid,  NO5,  for  instance,  has  never  to  our  knowl- 
edge been  isolated,  but  its  existence  is  merely  supposed  from 
analogy.  For  hydrated  nitric  acid  we  have  the  formula, 
NO5  -|-  HO  ;  but  why  this  formula,  rather  than  this,  NOg  -f-  H, 
or  this,  HNO5?  Any  metals  dissolving  in  nitric  acid  replace 
the  hydrogen  only.  The  same  may  be  said  of  muriatic  acid, 
HCl  (more  properly  termed  hydrochloric  acid) ,  which  we  know 
to  be  a  compound  of  hydrogen  and  chlorine.  If  we  dissolve 
a  metal  in  muriatic  acid,  we  tind  that  the  acid,  and  not  the 
water  is  decomposed.  Or  turn  muriatic  acid  upon  soda,  we 
find  that  the  action  is  not  that  of  the  acid  combining  with  the 
oxide,  but  that  there  is  a  double  decomposition,  which,  accord- 
ing to  Davy,  is  represented  thus  :  HCl  HO  +  NaCl  -\-  jHO. 
Proving  that  these  bodies  which  are  termed  muriates  should 
be  more  properly  named  chlorides. 

"VVe  have  only  stated  the  fundamental  principles  of  these 
views  as  a  general  guide  to  the  young  dyer  in  his  inquiries  into 


196  THE   AMEKICAX   DTEE. 

chemical  science,  and  if  he  wishes  to  obtain  more  extended 
information,  he  should  study  such  works  as  Dumas's  Lectures 
upon  Dyeing,  Thomson,  Graham,  Wagner  and  others,  who 
have  given  this  subject  a  great  deal  of  attention  and  investi- 
gation. It  will  ample  repay  any  time  and  labor  he  may  expend 
upon  it,  as  upon  the  proper  understanding  of  the  primary  and 
fundamental  laws  of  affinity,  in  a  great  measure  depends  the 
right  application  of  chemical  science  to  practical  purposes,  and 
most  especially  in  the  various  operations  of  dyeing. 

Sulphuric  Acid  =  H2SO4. 

The  sulphuric  acid,  or  oil  of  vitriol  of  commerce,  is  com- 
posed of  81.5  parts  of  anhydrous  sulphuric  acid  and  18  5 
parts  of  water.  There  are  in  the  market  two  distinct  kinds 
of  this  acid, —  the  fuming  or  Nordhausen  sulphuric  acid,  and 
the  ordinary  or  common  oil  of  vitriol.  The  Nordhausen  de- 
rives its  name  from  the  place  where  it  is  manufactured  in 
German}'.  The  method  of  preparing  this  kind  of  acid  is  very 
old,  and  is  still  practised  in  Nordhausen.  It  is  a  very  strong  acid, 
and  has  a  dark  color,  and  gives  off  a  large  amount  of  white 
fumes,  for  which  reason  it  is  called  fuming  oil  of  vitriol.  This 
is  the  best  acid  of  the  two  kinds  for  making  sulphate  of  indigo, 
or  chemic. 

At  a  red  heat,  all  sulphates,  except  those  of  the  alkaline 
earths,  are  decomposed,  for  which  reason  they  can  be  em- 
ployed for  manufacturing  fuming  sulphuric  acid,  but  the 
sulphate  of  iron  (2Fe  SO4)  being  cheaper  than  the  other  sul- 
phates, it  is  mostly  used  in  preparing  fuming  oil  of  vitriol. 
By  exposing  this  salt  to  a  red  heat,  it  will  be  decomposed  into 
anhydrous  sulphuric  acid  and  sulphurous  acid  (SOo).  Anhy- 
drous sulphuric  acid  (HO  SO3)  could  be  obtained  from  sul- 
phate of  iron,  if  the  sulphate  could  be  possibly  procured 
perfectly  anhydrous,  but  as  this  is  not  possible  to  do  without 
decomposition,  some  water  is  always  retained,  the  result  being 
the  compound  known  as  fuming  sulphuric  acid  ;  that  is,  a 
mixture  of  anhydrous  and  common  oil  of  vitriol  (HO  SO3). 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  ]97 

The  method  of  preparing  fuming  sulphuric  acid  is  as  fol- 
lows :  "The  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron  (2Fe  SOJ  is  first 
evaporated  to  dryness,  and  then  dried  in  open  vessels  as 
much  as  possible.  The  dry  saline  mass  (vitriol  stone  it  is 
called  in  Germany)  is  next  transferred  to  fire-clay  fiasUs, 
placed  in  a  galley  furnace,  the  necks  of  the  flasks  passing 
through  the  wall  of  the  furnace,  and  are  properly  fastened  to 
the  necks  of  the  receivers.  Into  each  of  these  flasks  two  and 
a  half  pounds  of  the  vitriol  stone  are  put;  at  the  first  applica- 
tion only  sulphurous  acid  and  weak  hydrated  sulphuric  acid 
comes  over,  and  is  usually  allowed  to  escape,  the  receivers 
not  being  securely  luted  until  white  vapours  of  anhydrous 
sulphuric  acid  are  seen."  "Into  each  of  the  receiving  flasks 
thirty  grammes  of  water  are  poured,  and  the  distillation  con- 
tinued for  twenty-four  or  thirty-six  hours.  The  retort-flasks 
are  then  filled  again  with  raw  material,  and  the  operation 
repeated  four  times  before  the  oil  of  vitriol  is  deemed  suflB- 
ciently  strong.  The  residue  in  the  retorts  is  red  oxide 
(peroxide  of  iron,  Fcj  O3)  of  iron,  still  retaining  some  sul- 
phuric acid.  The  quantity  of  fuming  acid  obtained  amounts 
to  forty-five  or  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  deh3alrated 
sulphate  of  iron  employed.  At  Davidsthal,  in  Bohemia, 
fourteen  hundred  weight  of  this  vitriol  stone  will  yield  in 
thirty-six  hours  five  and  a  half  hundred  weight  of  fuming 
sulphuric  acid." 

It  is  preferable  to  use  sulphate  of  the  peroxide  of  iron 
instead  of  the  protosulphate  ;  the  sulphate  of  the  peroxide  can 
be  easily  made  by  using  the  peroxide  and  the  ordinary  or 
common  oil  of  vitriol.  Frequently  the  fuming  acid  is  made 
by  passing  anhydrous  sulphuric  acid  obtained  by  calcining 
perfectly  deh3'drated  protosulphate  of  iron,  or,  still  l)etter, 
the  persulphate  of  iron,  into  common  oil  of  vitriol.  It  is  also 
now  and  then  made  from  the  bisulphate  of  soda  left  after 
making  nitric  acid  from  saltpetre. 

The  concentrated  oil  of  vitriol  is  prepared,  on  a  large  scale, 
in  leaden  chambers,  and  dates  as  far  back  as  1746.     "Dr. 


198  THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 

Roebuck  of  Birmingham,  Eng.,  erected  the  first  leaden  cham- 
ber in  Edinburgh.  Although  the  use  of  leaden  chambers  is 
due  to  an  Englishman,  the  present  mode  of  manufacturing 
sulphuric  acid  was  invented  by  a  calico-printer  at  Rouen,  in 
1774,  and  improved  by  the  celebrated  Chaptal."  Many 
methods  have  been  suggested  for  manufacturing  sulphuric 
acid,  but  none  have  anywhere  superseded  the  process  gener- 
ally adopted.  We  will  mention  a  few  only  of  the  re-actions 
upon  which  these  methods  are  based.  Persoz's  method  is 
based  upon  the  following  re-actions  :  "  First.  Oxidation  of 
sulijhurous  acid  by  means  of  nitric  acid,  the  latter  being 
heated  to  100°  Fahr.,  and  diluted  with  four  to  six  times  its 
bulk  of  water.  Second.  The  vapors  of  hyponitric  acid  are 
again  converted  to  nitric  acid  by  the  oxygen  of  the  air  and 
steam.  In  this  process,  the  leaden  chambers  are  replaced  by 
a  series  of  large  earthenware  bottles,  called  a  Woulfe's  appara- 
tus." "  Hahner's  method  is  based  on  the  oxidizing  of  sulphur- 
ous acid  with  chlorine,  care  being  taken  that  steam  is  present 
at  the  time,  and  is  thus  expressed  : — 

Sulphurous  acid    SO     j>  ,  s„n„rie  „eid.  HOSO3. 

Aqueous  vapor,  2H  O,  ^   y.eld    |  jj  d,.„^y„^i„  „^,ij    pjc... 
Chlonne,  ^C\,      J 

Although  enormous  quantities  of  gypsum  are  found 
native,  all  attempts  to  prepare  sulphuric  acid  from  this 
mineral  have  failed,  in  an  industrial  point  of  view.  The 
composition  of  gypsum,  or  sulphate  of  lime,  is  as  follows,  in 
one  hundred  parts  : — 

Sulphuric  acid,  SO3,   (anhydrous,)   43 
Lime,  Ca,  33 

Water,  HO,  24  =  100 

Sulphuric  acid  is  one  of  the  most  important  compounds  of 
sulphur.  This  acid  is  a  corrosive  substance,  converting  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  matter  into  charcoal,  the  hydrogen  and 
nitrogen  of  these  substances  forming  water,  which  combines 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 


199 


with  the  acid  and  leaves  the  carbon  as  charcoal.  It  is  .the 
only  liquid  that  will  combine  with  and  dissolve  indigo  without 
deoxidizing  it,  but  to  effect  this  it  must  be  concentrated. 

Sulphuric  acid  has  great  attraction  for  moisture.  It  will 
combine  intimately  with  water  in  any  proportion,  yet  there 
seems  to  be  certain  definite  qualities  that  will  combine  with  it 
chemically.  When  water  is  added  heat  is  evolved  (this  heat 
is  a  definite  quantity),  and  is  accompanied  by  great  condensa- 
tion of  bulk,  as  the  dyer  can  convince  himself  by  taking  equal 
quantities  of  strong  oil  of  vitriol  and  water  and  mixing  them, 
when,  after  the  mixture  becomes  cold,  he  will  find  a  much 
less  quantity.  The  heat  of  this  mixture,  when  first  put 
together,  will  reach  the  boiling-point,  or  212°. 

This  acid  will  combine  with  alkalies,  earths,  and  metals, 
and  the  salts  thus  found  are  called  sulphates  of  the  particular 
base  to  which  it  is  united, — such  as  alum,  copper,  iron,  and 
lime.  They  are  then  called  sulphate  of  alumina,  sulphate  of 
copper,  sulphate  of  iron,  sulphate  of  lime,  &c.  Carboys  con- 
taining oil  of  vitriol,  muriatic,  and  nitric  acids  should  be  kept 
well  corked,  or  stopped  up,  as  they  all  absorb  moisture  very 
readily  when  exposed  to  the  atmosphere. 

We  will  here  insert  a  few  of  Fesquet's  experiments  upon 
the  amount  of  condensation  and  heat  given  out,  which  were 
performed  with  a  common  thermometer  and  alkaliineter. 
These  experiments  were  on  sulphuric  acid  ; — 


Measures  of 

Measures  of 

Heat  when 

Increase  of 

Loss  by 

water. 

acid. 

mi-xed. 

heat. 

condensation. 

90 

10 

86° 

40° 

5 

80 

20 

116 

70 

7 

70 

30 

154 

108 

8 

60 

30 

188 

142 

H 

50 

50 

210 

164 

11 

40 

50 

212 

166 

11 

30 

70 

164 

154 

9 

20 

80 

136 

118 

H 

10 

90 

— 

90 

7 

•  200  THE   A]MERICA]Sr   DYER. 

".The  above  was  the  mean  of  three  trials  ;  the  proportions 
of  acid  and  water  were  taken  to  make  100  graduations.  The 
heat  was  observed  immediately  after  mixing,  and  the  mixture 
was  kept  in  a  stopped  bottle  until  cold,  when  it  was  measured 
by  the  alkalimeter,  and  the  loss  by  condensation  noted. 

"  The  heat  of  the  water  and  acid  separately  was  46°  Fahr. 
The  acid  used  had  a  specific  gravity  of  1.795,  taken  by 
Twaddle. 

"  Another  proof  that  water  and  sulphuric  acid  form  a  defi- 
nite compound  is,  that  when  the  acid  has  the  specific  gravity 
of  1.78,  the  composition  is  SOJI  +  HO.  This,  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  32°  will  crystallize  in  large  and  regular  crystals, 
while  stronger  or  weaker  acid,  at  the  same  temperature,  will 
not  crystallize." 

Dyers  often  complain  of  their  acids  being  weak,  and  charge 
the  manufacturer  of  them  with  making  poor  acids,  when  in 
fact  it  is  their  own  fault ;  by  their  carelessness  in  leaving  the 
carboys  unstopped,  they  allow  the  acid  to  absorb  moisture 
from  the  atmosphere,  causing  it  become  diluted.  Let  any 
one  place  a  cup  half  full  of  oil  of  vitriol  exposed  to  the  atmos- 
phere, and  he  will  be  astonished  at  the  short  time  it  takes  for 
the  cup  to  become  full. 

"The  impurities  of  sulphuric  acid  are  lead,  nitric  acid, 
arsenic,  and  sulphate  of  potash  ;  the  potash  is  used  to  give 
the  acid  density.  Sulphate  of  potash  or  soda  can  be  detected 
in  oil  of  vitriol  by  putting  a  few  drops  of  the  acid  into  a 
small  earthen  basin  and  saturating  it  with  ammonia ;  then 
evaporate  it  to  dryness  and  apply  a  strong  heat  to  it  until  all 
the  white  fumes  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  cease  rising,  and  if 
the  acid  is  pure  there  will  be  nothing  left. 

"  Lead  can  be  detected  in  the  acid  by  adding  a  little  dis- 
tilled water  to  it,  and  if  lead  is  present  it  is  converted  into  a 
sulphate  of  lead,  and  is  not  soluble  in  diluted  acid  ;  so  by 
adding  water  to  sulphuric  acid  that  contains  lead  there  will 
be  produced  a  milkiness  in  the  solution,  which  shows  the 
presence  t)f  lead.     If  nitric  acid  is  present  it  can  be  detected 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 


201 


by  taking  a  good  bright  crystal  of  copperas  and  suspend  it  in 
the  acid  and  apply  heat.  A  black  ring  will  form  around  the 
crystal  of  copperas,  or  you  will  perceive  the  smell  of  per- 
oxide of  nitrogen,  if  nitric  acid  is  present  in  the  oil  of 
vitriol." 

The  most  highly  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  contains 
18.46  per  cent,  of  water;  its  formula,  HOSO3 ;  specific 
gravity,  1.848.  In  a  perfectly  pure  state  it  is  a  colorless 
liquid,  but  it  is  generally  more  or  less  yellow  or  brown 
colored,  owing  to  the  presence  of  organic  matter.  The 
boiling  point  of  highly  concentrated  oil  of  vitriol  is  338° 
Fahr. 

The  uses  of  sulphuric  acid  are  so  numerous  that  it  would 
be  impossible  to  name  all  of  them,  sulphuric  acid  being 
to  chemical  industry  what  iron  is  to  the  mechanical.  Sul- 
phuric acid  is  employed  in  preparing  a  great  many  other 
acids,  such  as  nitric,  muriatic,  sulphurous,  carbonic,  phos- 
phoric, tartaric,  and  citric  acid.  It  is  also  used  in  making 
soda,  superphosphates,  sulphate  of  ammonia,  alum,  sulphates 
of  copper  and  iron ;  in  refining  paraffine,  petroleum,  and 
silver;  for  the  manufacturing  of  garancine,  garanceux,  and 
other  madder  preparations.  It  is  used  by  the  dyer  in  making 
sulphate  of  indigo  (chemic)  with  muriatic  acid  as  a  solvent 
for  tin  in  making  the  solution  of  murio-sulphate  of  tin. 

"  The  following  table  gives  the  quantity  of  anhydrous  sul- 
phuric acid  contained  in  sulphuric  acid  at  15.5  C.  :  — 


Hydratcil 

Specific  gravity. 

Anhydrous 

Hydrated 

Specific  gravity. 

Anhydrous 

Sulphuric  Acid 

Acid. 

Sulphuric  Acid. 

100 

1.8485 

81. .54 

93 

1.8290 

75.83 

99 

1.8475 

80.72 

92 

1.8233 

75.02 

98 

1.8460 

79.yo 

91 

1.8179 

74.20 

97 

1.8439 

79.09 

90 

1.8115 

73.39 

96 

1.8410 

78.28 

89 

1.8043 

72.57 

95 

1.8376 

77.40 

88 

1.7962 

71.75 

94 

1.8336 

76.G5 

87 

1.7870 

70.94 

26 


202 


THE    A3IERICAN   DYER. 


Hydrated 

Anhydrous 

Hydrated 

Anhydrous 

Snlpharic  Acid. 

Specific  gravity. 

Acid. 

Sulphuric  Acid. 

Specific  gravity. 

Acid. 

86 

1.7774 

70.12 

69 

1..5868 

57.26 

85 

1.7673 

69.31 

68 

1.5760 

55.45 

84 

1.7570 

68.49     1 

67 

1.5648 

54.63 

83 

1.7465 

67.68 

66 

1.. 5.503 

53.82 

82 

1.7360 

66.86 

1            65 

1.5390 

53.00 

81 

1.7245 

66.05 

64 

1.5280 

52.18 

80 

1.7120 

65.23 

63 

1.5170 

51.37 

79 

1.6993 

64.42 

62 

1..5066 

50.55 

78 

1.6870 

63.60 

61 

1.4960 

49.74 

77 

1.6750 

62.78 

60 

1.4860 

48.92 

76 

1.6630 

61.97     1 

i            59 

1.4760 

48.11 

75 

1.6520 

61.15 

1            58 

1.4660 

47.29 

74 

1.6415 

60.34 

;          57 

1.4.560 

46..58 

73 

1.6321 

59.-55     ! 

56 

1.4460 

45.68 

72 

1.6204 

58.71     1 

55 

1.4360 

44.85 

71 

1.6090 

57.89     J 

54 

1.426.5- 

45.03 

70 

1.5975 

67.08     ! 

1 

53 

1.4170 

43.22 

The  composition  of  hj'drated  sulphuric  acid  of  the  specific 
gravity  of  1.845  (1.8485,  Ure)  consists  of  1  equivalent  of 
dry  acid,  40,  and  1  equivalent  of  water,  9  =  49.  As  the  water 
acts  the  part  of  a  base,  the  proper  name  of  it  would  be  sul- 
phate of  water,  its  formula  being  HOSOg.  The  dry  acid 
consists  of  1  equivalent  of  sulphur,  16,  and  3  equivalents  of 
oxygen,  24  =:  40,  as  above  stated.  The  ordinary  com- 
mercial acid  (specific  gravity,  1.8433)  consists,  according  to 
Phillips,  of  1  equivalent  of  dry  acid,  and  1^  equivalents  of 
water.  The  hydrated  Nordhausen  acid  has  a  density  as  high 
1.89,  and  consists  of  2  equivalents  of  dry  acid,  and  1  equiva- 
lent of  water  (HO,  2  SO3). 

Sulphuric  acid,  commonly  called  oil  of  vitriol,  is  a  dense, 
colorless,  inodorous  liquid,  and  strongly  corrosive,  and  upon 
living  tissues  it  acts  as  a  powerful  caustic.  It  contains  water, 
which  is  essential  to  its  existence.  It  unites  with  water  in  all 
proportions,  and  great  heat  is  evolved  on  mixture  of  the  two 
fluids.  If  its  density  exceeds  1.8485  it  contains  lead  or  other 
impurities  ;  at  the  above  density  it  contains  18  per  cent,  of 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  203 

water;  at  a  density  of  1.8433  it  contains  22  per  cent,  of 
water;  it  boils  at  620°,  and  freezes  at  15°  below  zero.  The 
usual  impurities  in  this  acid  are  the  sulphates  of  potash  and 
lead.  The  former  impurity  is"  derived  from  the  residue  of 
the  process  ;  the  latter,  from  the  leaden  boilers  in  which  it  is 
concentrated.  Occasionally  nitre  is  added,  to  give  it  density, 
and  to  render  dark-colored  acid  colorless.  These  impurities 
often  amount  to  three  or  four  per  cent.  The  commercial  acid 
cannot  be  expected  to  be  absolutely  pure,  but  when  it  is 
properly  manufactured  it  should  not  contain  more  than  one- 
fourth  of  one  per  cent,  of  impurity.  If  sulphate  of  lead  is 
present,  the  acid  will  become  turbid,  if  it  is  diluted  with  an 
equal  weight  of  water. 

Hydrochloric  AciDmHCl,  or  Muriatic  Apm. 

This  acid  has  been  known  from  an  early  period  in  history 
by  the  name  of  marine  acid,  spirits  of  salt,  &c.  It  is  a 
gaseous  substance,  and  very  soluble  in  water,  in  w^iich  con- 
dition it  is  employed.  This  gas  is  produced  by  the  decompo- 
sition of  common  salt  and  sulphuric  acid,  and  in  order  to 
effect  its  condensation,  the  gas  is  conveyed  to  coke  columns  ; 
but  in  most  instances  the  gas  is  prepared  and  condensed  by 
the  aid  of  several  cast-iron  furnaces,  fitted  up  similar  to  gas- 
retorts,  with  lids  luted  with  clay.  One  of  these  lids  is  pro- 
vided with  an  opening,  so  as  to  fit  in  the  stone-ware  or  lead 
pipe  that  leads  to  the  condensing  jars  ;  the  gas  passes  through 
this  pipe  into  the  jars  ;  these  jars  contain  water  for  the  absorp- 
tion of  the  gas,  and  are  called  a  Woulfe's  apparatus.  There 
is  another  lid  to  these  retorts,  at  the  end,  with  an  opening  in 
it ;  in  this  opening  is  a  lead  funnel  attached,  so  that  after  the 
retort  is  filled  with  the  proper  amount  of  salt,  sulphuric  acid 
may  then  be  poured  in. 

There  are  generally  two  retorts,  and  they  are  so  constructed 
that  the  fire  can  play  around  them  before  reaching  the  flue  or 
chimne}^:  The  first  operation  is  to  fill  these  retorts  with  the 
quantity  of  salt  required.     The  lids  or  covers  are  then  luted 


204 


THE   AMERICAN  DYER. 


on  and  the  fire  kindled.  The  required  amount  of  strong  sul- 
phuric acid  is  now  poured  into  the  retort  through  the  funnel, 
then  the  funnel  is  taken  out  and  the  hole  is  closed  with  clay. 
As  soon  as  the  re-action  is  over  the  sulphate  of  soda  produced 
by  the  acid  and  salt  is  taken  from  the  retorts  and  the  opera- 
tion is  again  repeated.  The  condensation  apparatus  consists 
of  rows  of  Woulfe's  bottles  or  jars,  partly  filled  with  water; 
care  is  taken  that  the  first  pair  of  jars  is  placed  in  a  tank  of 
cold  water.  The  condensation  of  the  last  portion  of  the 
hydrochloric  acid  gas  is  effected  by  the  aid  of  coke  columns 
or  in  leaden  chambers,  into  which  fine  jets  of  cold  water  are 
injected  on  all  sides  of  the  column  or  leaden  chambers.  Com- 
mercial muriatic  acid  has  a  yellow  color,  the  color  being  due 
to  chloride  of  iron  :  the  taste  of  this  acid  is  a  caustic  sour, 
and  it  furpes  by  being  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  ;  when  pure 
it  is  colorless,  and  strong  sunshine  will  decompose  it.  For 
the  above  reasons  it  should  be  kept  in  a  dark  place  and  well 
stopped  up;  all  substances  that  it  comes  in  contact  with 
rapidly  corrode,  and  its  fumes  will  destroy  colors.  When  this 
acid  is  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  it  emits  white  fumes,  which 
is  muriatic-acid  gas  with  a  little  watery  vapor ;  therefore 
exposure  will  weaken  the  acid,  and  ought  to  be  avoided  as 
much  as  possible.  Water  is  capable  of  absorbing  475  times 
its  own  bulk  of  hydrochloric-acid  gas,  and  a  saturated  solution 
contains  42.85  per  cent,  of  gas,  the  specific  gravity  being 
1.21.  The  table  below  will  show  the  specific  gravity  of  this 
acid  at  its  various  degrees  of  concentration,  and  the  amount 
of  pure  acid  (real  gas)  contained  at  70°. 


Specific 

DeKrees 

Degrees 

Percentage 

Specific 

Degrees 

Degrees 

Percentage 

gravity. 

Baume. 

Twaddle. 

of  Acid. 

gravity. 

Baume, 

Twaddle. 

of  Acid. 

1.21 

26 

42 

42.85 

1.17 

22 

34 

34.34 

1.20 

25 

.40 

40.80 

1.16 

21 

32 

32.32 

1.19 

24 

38 

38.88 

1.15 

20 

30 

30.30 

1.18 

23 

36 

36.36 

1.14 

19 

28    * 

28.28 

THE    AMERICAX   DYER. 


205 


Specific 

Degrees 

Degrees 

Percentage 

Specific 

Degrees 

Degrees 

Percentage 

gravity. 

Baume. 

Twaddle. 

of  Acid. 

gravity. 

Baume. 

Twaddle. 

of  Acid. 

1.13 

18 

2G 

26.26 

1.06 

9 

12 

12.12 

1.12 

17 

24 

24.24 

1.05 

8 

10 

10.10 

1.11 

15.5 

22 

22.22 

1.04 

6 

8 

8.08 

1.10 

14.5 

20 

20.20 

1.03 

5 

6 

6.06 

1.09 

12 

18 

18.18 

1.02 

3 

4 

4.04 

1.08 

11 

16 

16.16 

1.01 

2 

2 

2.02 

1.07 

10 

14 

14.14 

— 

— 

— 

- 

This  acid  is  very  largely  employed  for  the  manufacturing 
of  sal-ammoniac,  phosphorus,  chloride  of  antimony,  glue, 
and  chlorine,  for  the  preparation  of  carbonic  acid,  for  the 
manufacture  of  artificial  mineral  waters  ;  it  is  also  employed 
in  bleach-works,  hydro-metallurgy,  in  beet-root  sugar  works, 
and,  mixed  with  nitric  acid,  to  form  aqua  regia,  for  dissolving 
various  metals.  The  principal  use  made  of  this  acid  by  the 
woolen-dyer  is  to  prepare  the  tin  solutions,  such  as  the  muri- 
ate of  tin,  nitro-muriate,  and  sulpho-muriate  of  tin.  This 
acid  in  its  purity  is  colorless,  exposure  to  light  changes  it  to 
a  yellow  color,  and  strong  sunshine  decomposes  it.  Some- 
times salt,  also  sulphuric  acid,  is  added  to  this  acid,  to  give  it 
weight  and  density.  The  salt  may  be  detected  by  evaporat- 
ing some  of  the  acid  in  a  saucer ;  if  salt  is  present  there  will 
be  a  white  residue  left;  if  iron  is  present  in  the  acid,  by 
evaporating  as  above  there  will  be  a  brown  residue  left. 

jMuriatic-acid  gas  is  a  colorless  elastic  fluid,  possessing  a 
pungent  odor,  and  the  property  of  irritating  the  organs  of 
respiration.  It  destroys  life  and  extinguishes  flame.  It  red- 
dens litmus  very  powerfully,  and  has  the  other  properties  of  a 
strong  acid. 

Its  specific  gravity  is  1.2*^9.  When  this  acid  is  subjected 
to  a  pressure  of  forty  atmospheres,  at  a  temperature  of  50°, 
it  is  condensed  into  a  transparent  liquid,  to  which  alone  the 


20G 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 


name  of  liquid  muriatic  acid  belongs.  Water,  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  611°,  takes  up  464  times  its  bulk  of  this  gas,  increasing 
its  bulk  one-third  and  about  three-fourths  in  weight. 

Muriatic  gas  consist  of  1  equivalent  of  chlorine,  35.5,  and 
1  equivalent  of  hydrogen,  1:=:30.5,  or  of  one  volume  of 
chlorine  and  one  of  hydrogen  united  together  without  con- 
densation. 

Table  of  the  Quantity  of  Aqueous  Muriatic  Acid  of  Specific  Gravity 
1.2  of  Muriatic  Acid  Gas,  and  of  Chlorine  in  100  parts  of 
Aqueous  Acid  of  different  densities. 


Specific 
Gravity. 

Aqueous 

Acid  of 

.Sp.Gr.  1.2. 

Acid  Gas. 

Clilorine. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Aqueous 

Acid  of 

Sp.Gr.  1.2. 

Acid  Gas. 

Chlurine. 

1.2000 

100 

40.777 

89. 

1.1102 

55 

21.822 

22.426 

1.1910 

95 

38.788 

87. 

1.1000 

50 

20.888 

19.887 

1.1822 

90 

36.700 

35. 

1.0899 

45 

18.848 

17.854 

1.1721 

85 

34.660 

33. 

1.0798 

40 

16.310 

15.870 

1.1701 

84 

34.252 

33. 

1.0697 

35 

14.271 

13.887 

1.1620 

80 

32.621 

31. 

1 .0597 

30 

12.283 

1 1 .903 

•    1.1599 

79 

32.213 

31. 

1.0497 

25 

10.194 

9.919 

1.1615 

75 

30.582 

29. 

1.0897 

20 

8.155 

7.985 

1.1419 

70 

28.544 

27. 

1.0298 

15 

6.116 

5.951 

1.1308 

65 

26.504 

25. 

1.0200 

10 

4.078 

3.968 

1.1206 

60 

24.466 

23. 

1.0100 

5 

2.039 

1.984 

Nitric  AciD^rHNOg. 

This  is  an  acid  that  abundantly  exists  in  nature  in  combina- 
tion with  other  substances  forming  nitrates.  Nitric  acid  is 
manufactured  from  either  nitrate  of  potash  or  nitrate  of  soda, 
but  at  the  present  time  it  is  prepared  from  the  nitrate  of  soda 
mostly,  as  it  is  cheaper  and  gives  more  density  to  the  acid ; 
consequently  it  will  be  of  a  higher  specific  gravity.  To  prove 
this,  it  has  been  found  that  one  hundred  pounds  of  nitrate  of 
soda  will  produce  eighty-two  pounds  of  nitric  acid,  while  one 
hundred    pounds    of  nitrate    of    potash   produces   but   sixty- 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  207 

eight  pounds,  and  it  takes  less  sulphuric  acid  with  soda  than 
with  potash.  With  potash  it  takes  two  equivalents  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  whereas  less  suffices  with  nitrate  of  soda. 

The  nitrate  of  potash  or  soda  is  placed  in  an  iron  retort, 
and  heat  is  applied,  and  sulphuric  acid  is  added  to  it  by  means 
of  a  tunnel  connected  with  the  retort,  and  the  acid  vapors  are 
allowed  to  distil  over  through  earthen  pipes  into  glazed 
earthen  flasks  or  jars,  which  are  called  receivers ;  it  is  then 
re-distilled  in  glass  retorts  and  placed  in  a  sand-bath,  with  heat 
applied  under  the  sand-bath.  The  next  process  is  the 
bleaching  of  the  acid.  The  acid  is  usually  of  a  yellaw  color, 
which  is  due  to  the  presence  of  hyponitric  acid,  and  if  a 
colorless  acid  is  wanted  it  must  go  through  the  bleaching 
process  ;  but  a  description  of  the  operation  is  too  lengthy 
to  insert  here,  and  if  given  would  be  of  no  advantage  to  the 
dyer.  This  bleaching  is  only  done  when  a  pure  acid  is  wanted, 
and  then  it  has  to  go  through  a  condensation  process  after  the 
bleaching.  There  have  been  improvements  made  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  nitric  acid,  especially  bearing  on  a  possibility  of 
doing  away  with  the  process  of  bleaching  and  a  better  method 
of  condensing  the  acid  vapors,  but  these  improvements  have 
not  been  adopted.  Ail  practical  chemists  are  well  aware  that 
the  red  vapors  will  appear  only  at  the  beginning  and  towards 
the  end  of  the  distillation  of  the  nitric  acid,  and  it  is  there- 
fore only  requisite  to  distil  the  acid  fractionally  to  obtain  on 
the  one  hand  a  red-colored  acid  (the  acidiwn  nitroso-nitricum 
of  the  pharmaceutists),  and  on  the  other  hand  to  obtain  a 
colorlet^s  acid  which  can  be  readily  delivered  to  the  market. 

The  nitric  acid  of  commerce  is  generally  of  a  very  light- 
brown  color,  which  is  owing  to  a  little  peroxide  of  nitrogen 
that  it  contains. 

The  following  table  was  made  out  by  Sir  H.  Davy,  giving 
the  proportions  of  nitrous  gas  contained  in  nitric  acid  accord- 
ing to  the  shade  of  color.     Thus,  in  one  hundred  parts  :  — 


208 


THE   A:^rEKICAN   DYER. 


COLOR. 

Real  Acid. 

Water. 

Peroxide 
of  Nitrogen. 

A  pale  yellow  has 

90.5 

8.3 

1.2 

A  Ijritrht  vellow  has 

88.9 

8.1 

2.9 

A  dark  orange  has .         .         .  •      . 

86.8 

7.6 

5.5 

A  light  olive  has 

86.0 

7.5 

6.1 

A  dark  olive  has 

85.4 

7.5 

7.4 

A  bright  green  has         .        . 

84.8 

7.4 

7.7 

A  blue  green  has 

84.6 

7.4 

8.0 

This  table  must  have  been  the  result  of  experiments  upon 
strong  acid  only,  for  the  color  will  be  changed  by  dilution. 
If  we  should  add  w^'iter  to  an  acid  of  a  dark  orange  color,  it 
would  soon  change  to  a  yellowish  green.  The  sun  also 
changes  the  color  of  this  acid,  which  is  due  to  the  decomposi- 
tion of  the  acid,  and  the  liberating  of  peroxide  of  nitrogen. 
"NYe  can  try  the  effects  of  light  upon  this  acid,  by  taking  some  of 
the  colorless  nitric  acid,  and  placing  it  in  the  raj's  of  the  sun. 
After  a  short  time  we  can  observe  the  change.  This  experi- 
ment will  show  the  necessity  of  keeping  it  in  a  dark  place. 
The  carboys  should  also  be  kept  stopped  up,  so  that  it  will 
not  be  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  as,  when  so  exposed,  it 
loses  its  strength  very  rapidly. 


Nitric  acid,  of  1.52  specific  gravity,  boils  at    86°  F. 


of  1.50 
of  1.42 
of  1.42 
of  1.40 
of  1.35 
of  1.30 
of  1.20 
of  1.15 


at  99°  " 
at  115°  " 
at  123°  «« 
at  119°  " 
at  117°  " 
at  113°  " 
at  108°  " 
at  104°  ".' 


There  is  a  fuming  nitric  acid,  prepared  by  using  one  part 
of  nitrate  of  potash,  KNO3  (saltpetre) ,  and  one  part  of  oil  of 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  209 

vitriol.  From  this  mixture  there  is  obtained  a  redtlish-yellow 
fluid,  which  consists  of  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  hyponitric 
acids,  and  is  known  hy  the  name  of  fuming  nitric  acid. 
When  equal  parts  of  nitrate  of  potash  and  sulphuric  acid  arc 
taken,  there  is  but  one-half  the  nitric  acid  expelled,  while  the 
other  half  is  decomposed  into  hyponitric  acid  and  oxygen. 
The  hyponitric  combines  with  the  nitric  acid,  thus  forming  the 
fumine:  acid.  But  when  manufacturing  nitric  acid  from  nitrate 
of  soda,  by  decomposition,  there  are  two  parts  of  sulphuric  acid 
used  to  one  part  of  the  soda.  By  this  method,  all  the  nitric 
acid  contained  in  these  salts  is  obtained,  and  what  remains  in 
the  retorts  is  bisulphate  of  soda.  When  soda  is  used,  it  is  on 
account  of  its  easy  decomposition  by  sulphuric  acid  ;  but  it  is 
not  necessary  to  use  two  parts  of  sulphuric  acid  to  one  of  soda, 
for  one  and  one-fourth  to  one  and  one-half  parts  of  sulphuric  acid 
have  been  found  to  be  practically  enough.  This  fuming  acid 
is,' at  the  present  time,  .prepared  by  adding  to  common  nitric 
acid  such  substances  as  will  easily  etfect  the  decomposition  of 
the  acid.  Sulphur  has  frequently  been  made  use  of  for  this  pur- 
pose. Starch,  however,  is  generally  used.  The  following 
recipe  for  manufacturing  fuming  nitric  acid  was  made  use  of 
by  M.  C.  Brunner,  and  called  Brunner's  recipe  :  To  one  hun- 
dred parts  of  saltpetre,  three  and  a  half  parts  of  starch  are 
added.  These  are  put  into  a  large  retort,  into  which  is  poured 
one  hundred  parts  of  strong  sulphuric  acid,  sp.  gr.  =1,850. 
The  distillation  usually  sets  in  without  the  assistance  of  heat ; 
but  towards  the  close  of  the  operation,  heat  has  to  be  gently 
applied.  In  this  manner  one  hundred  parts  of  saltpetre  are 
made  to  produce  about  sixty  parts  of  fuming  nitric  acid.  The 
impurities  in  nitric  acid  are  generally  iron,  sulphuric  and 
muriatic  acids,  and  nitre  is  used  to  give  it  density,  and  cause 
its  specific  gravity  to  be  greater  than  it  really  is. 

The  general  test   for  nitric  acid   in    the  dye-house  is  the 

hydrometer,  but  density  is  given  by  adding  to  the  acid  nitre, 

sulphuric  and  muriatic  acids  ;  and  in  order  to  find  out  these 

impurities,  we  must  test  them  by  some  other  way  than  by  the 

27 


210  THE    AMEEICAX   DYEK. 

hydrometer.  Nitre  may  be  detected  very  easily,  by  taking  a 
little  of  the  acid  and  evaporating  it  to  dryness,  and  if  the  acid 
is  pure,  there  will  be  no  residuum  left.  If  it  contains  oil  of 
vitriol,  it  may  be  discovered  by  taking  some  of  the  acid,  and 
adding  four  times  the  amount  of  distilled  water  to  it ;  then  to 
this  add  a  few  drops  from  a  solution  of  l)arytes,  and  if  it  con- 
tains any  sulphuric  acid,  the  barytes  will  cause  a  wiiite  pre- 
cipitation to  take  place. 

Muriatic  acid  and  chlorine  can  be  detected  by  diluting  some 
of  the  acid  ;  then  add  a  trifle  of  nitrate  of  silver.  The  result 
will  be  a  white  precipitation  if  muriatic  acid  is  present  in  the 
nitric  acid.  Iron  is  detected  by  evaporating  a  little  of  the 
acid.  There  will  be  a  brown-colored  substance  left  if  there  is 
iron  in  the  acid ;  or,  by  adding  some  gall-water  to  the  acid,  a 
blfiish-black  color  will  then  show  in  the  acid  and  gall-water,  if 
iron  is  present  in  the  acid. 

The  specific  gravity  of  nitric  acid  .  ranges  from  1.422  to 
.1.550,  and  it  contains  from  seventy-six  to  one  hundred  parts  of 
acid  in  one  huudred  parts.  The  technical  application  of  nitric 
acid  is  based  on  its  property  of  oxidation  when  in  contact  with 
certain  substances,  the  acid  splitting  up  into  dentoxide  of 
nitrogen,  hyponitric  acid,  and  azone,  the  latter  forming  with 
the  body  which  causes  the  decomposition  of  the  acid,  either 
an  oxide  or  a  peculiar  compound  ;  while  the  hyponitric  acid, 
when  organic  substances  are  present  capable  of  combining 
with  it,  forms  the  nitro  compounds,  such  as  nitro-benzole, 
nitro-uaphthaline,  nitro-glycerine,  and  nitro-cellulose,  or  gun- 
cotton.  Silk,  wool,  feathers,  horn,  and  the  skin  of  the  hands 
will  be  stained  yellow  by  nitric  acid,  for  which  reason  it  is 
used  to  color  silk  yellow.  If  the  acid  is  in  contact  with  the 
above  substances  for  any  length  of  time,  they  will  be  com- 
pletely decomposed,  and  partially  converted  into  picric  acid. 
Starch  and  sugar  are  converted  into  oxalic  acid  by  the  action 
of  nitric  acid  ;  but  a  very  dilute  nitric  acid  will  convert  starch 
into  dextrine,  or  British  gum. 

This  acid  acts   violently  upon   indigo.     It  discharges   its 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  211 

color,  for  which  reason  it  is  employed  in  calico-printing  to 
produce  a  yellow  pattern  on  an  indigo  ground.  It  is  used  in 
woolen-dyeing,  for  making  nitro-muriate  of  tin,  and,  in  a 
diluted  state,  it  is  used  for  a  discharge  in  woolen-printing,  all 
the  vegetable  colors  being  changed  by  its  action  to  a  yellow. 

Nitric  acid  is  used  in  hat-making,  to  prepare  a  mercurial 
solution  for  dressing  felt  hats.  It  is  used  for  the  preparation 
of  nitrate  of  iron,  a  mordant  for  dyeing  silk  black;  also  for 
cotton-yarn  dyeing.  It  is  employed  to  prepare  picric  acid 
from  carbolic  acid,  and  naphthaline-yellow  from  naphthaline. 
It  is  used  in  manufacturing  nitro-benzole,  nitro-toluol,  and 
phthalic  acid,  and  for  the  preparation  of  nitrate  of  silver, 
arsenic  acid,  fulminate  of  mercury,  nitro-glycerine,  &c. 

Nitric  acid  is  one  of  the  five  compounds  formed  be- 
tween nitrogen  and  oxygeu.  These  five  compounds  are : 
Nitrous  oxide  (or  laughing  gas),  NO;  nitric  oxide,  NO2 ; 
nitrous  acid  (formerly  hyponitrous  acid),  NO^ ;  hyponitric  acid 
(formerly  nitrous  acid),  NO* ;  and  nitric  acid,  NO5;  or  thus  : 

NO,   nitrous  oxide. 
NO2,  nitric  oxide. 
NO3,  nitrous  acid. 
NO4,  hyponitric  acid. 
NO5,  nitric  acid. 

The  formulas,  according  to  Berzelius,  for  the  differeiit  nitric 
acids,  are  as  follows  : — 

Nitric  acid,  NO'. 

Monohydrated  (or  nitrate  of  water),  HO,  NO5. 

Quadrihydrated  (sp.  gr.  1.42),  HO,  NOj+SHO. 

The  monohydrated  nitric  acid  is  the  strongest  that  can  be 
procured.  Nitric  acid  was  discovered  by  Raymond  L\illy, 
about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  its  constituents 
by   Cavendish,  in  1784.     Nitric  acid   is  said  to  be  present 


212  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

always  in  the  air  of  summer.     The  quadrihydrated  nitric  acid 
is  what  is  used  by  physicians  and  apothecaries, 

NiTito-MuRiATic  Acid  or  Aqua  Regia— NO2  Cl^,  or  NO2  CI. 

This  acid  is  the  aqua  regia  of  the  earlier  chemists,  and  was 
so  called  from  its  property  pf  dissolving  gold.  When  nitric 
and  muriatic  acids  are  mixed  together,  they  will  mutually 
decompose  each  other,  and  according  to  the  researches  of  Gay 
Lussac,  the  re-action  of  the  two  acids  gives  rise  to  two  com- 
pounds, in  variable  proportions  of  nitric  oxide  and  chlorine 
(NO2  CI2,  and  NO2  CI),  mixed  with  free  chlorine,  the  nitric 
oxide  and  chlorine  being  analogous  in  constitution  to  hyponi- 
tric  acid  (NO4),  and  the  free  chlorine  mixed  with  the  nitrous 
acid  is  analogous  to  nitrous  acid  (NO3). 

The  power  of  nitro- muriatic  acid  to  dissolve  gold  and  simi- 
lar metals  that  have  a  weak  affinity  for  oxygen,  is  owing  en- 
tirely to  the  free  chlorine  which  is  present  in  the  mixture, 
and  is  in  no  way  dependent  upon  the  two  compounds  above 
referred  to,  as  they  remain  entirely  passive  during  the  dis- 
solving of  the  gold.  The  proportions  of  the  acids  mixed  to 
produce  aqua  regia,  according  to  the  above  chemical  theory, 
would  be  two  equivalents  of  nitric  to  six  equivalents  of  muri- 
atic acid,  in  order  to  have  them  entirely  and  mutually  decom- 
pose each  other,  and  the  products  would  be  the  two  compounds 
named  above  (nitric  oxide  and  chlorine,  free  chlorine  and 
water) .  •  Most  dyers,  when  preparing  their  nitro-muriatic  acid 
for  dissolving  tin,  use  one  equivalent  of  nitric  to  three  equiv- 
alents of  muriatic  acid,  and  one  equivalent  of  nitric  to  six 
equivalents  of  muriatic  acid  ;  then  add  from  one  and  one-half 
to  two  ounces  of  granulated  tin  to  the  pound  of  the  mixed 
acid. 

The  United  States  standard  formula  for  making  aqua  regia, 
is  three  equivalents  of  nitric  to  six  equivalents  of  muriatic 
acid.  If  we  assume  that  the  proportions  given  by  Lussac  are 
correct,  it  follows  that  there  is  an  excess  of  nitric  acid  era- 
ployed  in  the  United  States  formula.     And  according  to  the 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  218 

same  views,  the  proportion  of  free  chlorine  must  be  variable, 
dependent  upon  the  relative  proportion  of  the  nitric  oxide 
compounds  to  each  other. 

For  every  equivalent  of  NO.j  CI.,  formed,  one  equivalent  of 
chlorine  will  be  set  free  ;  and  for  every  equivalent  of  NO.,  CI, 
two  equivalents  of  chlorine  will  be  evolved.  Gay  Lussac  has 
not  given  us  the  precise  circumstances  that  determine  the 
simultaneous  formation  of  the  two  nitric-oxide  compounds 
alluded  to  above,  neither  has  he  pointed  out  to  us  their  con- 
stant varying  proportion  to  each  other. 

Nitro-muriatic  acid  is  of  a  golden-yellow  color,  and  has  the 
smell  of  chlorine.  In  preparing  this  compound,  the  operator 
must  not  hold  his  head  over  the  vessel  containing  it  any  length 
of  time,  as  the  fumes  from  it  are  very  injurious.  The  solu- 
tion, when  first  put  together,  emits  a  great  amount  of  nitrous 
gas. 

The  solution  of  nitro-muriate  of  tin,  should  have  a  fine 
amber-yellow  color,  when  to  be  used  for  coloring  scarlets, 
but  for  yellows  and  crimson  shades,  it  will  do  to  have  it  a 
browner-yellow  color,  which  color  is  brought  about  by  having 
more  tin  added  to  the  acids.   (See  article,  nitro-muriate  of  tin.) 

Oxalic  Acid =0203. 
This  acid  was  formerly  known  as  salts  of  sorrel,  and  was 
obtained  from  a  plant,  but  now  it  is  prepared  from  sugar  and 
starch,  by  the  actions  of  nitric  acid  on  these  two  articles.  To 
obtain  this  acid,  one  part  of  sugAr,  two  parts  of  starch,  four 
parts  of  nitric  acid,  and  two  parts  of  water,  are  put  into  a 
retort,  when  a  violent  action  takes  place;  the  nitric  acid  de- 
composes and  oxidates  the  sugar  and  starch,  red  fumes  are 
ernitted,  which  show  the  presence  of  nitrous  acid  (NO3)  ; 
the  solution  in  the  retort  is  then  evaporated  to  about  two-thirds 
of  the  original  amount ;  the  crystals  form  as  the  solution  cools  ; 
they  are  white-colored.  These  crystals  are  again  dissolved, 
and  evaporated  the  second  time.  Oxalic  acid  is  also  manu- 
factured from  caustic  soda  and  sawdust. 


214  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

Oxalic  acid  combines  with  different  bases,  and  forms  salts 
of  various  kinds,  that  are  of  great  importance.  In  the  labora- 
tory, it  is  easily  known  from  the  alkaline  or  earthy  salts. 
Oxalic  acid  often  contains  peroxide  of  nitrogen  (NO^),  and 
Epsom  salts.  To  detect  the  presence  of  the  nitrogen  in  this 
acid,  dissolve  a  small  amount  of  the  suspected  acid,  and  add 
to  the  solution  the  smallest  possible  quantity  of  sulphate  of 
indigo.  If  nitrogen  is  present,  the  indigo  will  be  discolored. 
If  it  contains  Epsom  salts,  you  can  detect  it  by  heating  some 
of  the  acids  to  redness  upon  a  piece  of  platinum,  and  if  it 
contains  no  Epsom  salts,  it  all  evaporates  ;  otherwise  it  will 
leave  a  residue  of  a  yellowish-looking  substance  upon  the 
platinum.  Epsom  salts  can  also  be  detected  by  chjoride  of 
barium.  There  is  often  from  three  to  seven  per  cent,  of 
Epsom  salt,  and  sometimes  more,  in  the  oxalic  acid  now  in 
the  market. 

"Commercial  oxalic  acid  is  frequently  rendered  impure  by 
the  presence  of  oxalate  of  lime  and  oxalate  of  potash.  When 
it  is  desirable  to  remove  these  impurities,  and  prepare  a  per- 
fectly pure  article,  it  can  be  done  in  the  following  manner: 
Crude  oxalic  acid  is  dissolved  in  the  least  possible  quantity  of 
hot  absolute  alcohol,  in  which  salts  of  lime  and  potash  are 
insoluble,  and  then  filtered.  In  a  few  hours  the  oxalic  acid 
crystallizes  out  nearly  pure,  and  the  mother-liquor  may  be 
employed  for  making  oxalate  of  ammonia,  or  for  dissolving  a 
fresh  portion  of  the  crude  acid.  The  crystals  thus  formed 
are  allowed  to  drain,  and  are  then  dissolved  in  boiling  dis- 
tilled water,  which  removes  any  adhering  oxalic  ether,  and 
leaves  the  acid  perfectly  pure." 

"To  prepare  pure  oxalate  of  ammonia,  the  alcoholic  mother- 
liquor  is  diluted,  either  with  fresh  water  or  with  the  aqueous 
mother-liquor,  from  the  oxalic  acid  crystals.  It  is  heated  to 
boiling  and  neutralized  with  ammonia.  In  this  operation, 
much  oxaraid  and  oxamethan  are  formed,  but  they  can  be 
easily  decomposed  by  acidifying  the  salt  solution  and  boiling 
for  a  considerable  time;  after  which  it  is  filtered,  and  the  fil- 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  21.') 

tnite  rendered  slightly  ammoiiiacal,  and  allowed  to  crystal- 
lize. By  cr\^stallization,  the  oxalate  is  obtained  pure  and 
white." —  Chemical  llevieio. 

Oxalate  of  potash  (KO,  C2O3).  This  salt  is  prepared  by 
saturating  the  carbonate  of  potash  (pearlash)  with  oxalic 
acid,  and  evaporated  to  crystallization.  It  contains  one  pro- 
portion of  water. 

Oxalate  of  copper  (CujCjOg).  This  salt  is  prepared  by 
digesting  oxide  of  copper  (Cii,  O)  in  a-  solution  of  oxalic  acid. 
This  salt  is  of  a  light-green  color. 

Oxalic  acid  is  used  more  than  formerly,  and  can  be  used 
on  more  than  one-half  the  colors  now  dyed  upon  wool,  as  it 
will  combine  with  all  the  dyestuffs,  and  will  add  intensity  to 
the  color,  besides  giving  it  a  more  brilliant  hue.  It  is  used 
largely  in  coloring  logwood  blue  on  wool  and  woolen  fabrics. 
It  has  been  lately  introduced  in  the  coloring  of  scarlets  and 
oranges  ;  its  particular  use  or  benefit  in  these  colors  is,  that 
it  will  prevent  the  wool  from  turning  brown  by  the  action  of 
its  sulphur  on  the  tin  contained  in  the  spirits,  as  the  tin  can- 
not precipitate  as  a  sulphide  where  oxalic  acid  is  present. 
Oxalic  acid  is  composed  of  carbon  and  oxygen,  having  a  pro- 
portion of  the  second  element  between  those  contained  in 
carbonic  oxide  and  carbonic  acid.  It  therefore  contains  12 
parts  of  carbon  and  24  of  oxygen,  or  2  parts  of  carbon  and  3 
parts  of  oxygen,  making  its  prime  equivalent  =  36. 

There  are  some  manufjicturers  of  oxalic  acid  who,  it  is  said, 
obtain  oxalic  acid  on  a  large  scale  by  heating  a  mixture  of  112 
lbs.  of  sugar,  .560  lbs.  of  saltpetre,  and  280  lbs.  of  sulphuric 
acid,  thus  producing  135  lbs.  of  oxalic  acid,  and  490  lbs.  of 
sal-enixum. 

There  are  many  substances  besides  sugar  that  yield  oxalic 
acid,  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  ;  for  instance,  rice,  gum, 
wool,  hair,  silk,  starch,  potatoes,  molasses,  and  numerous 
vegetable  acids.  Certain  organic  substances  will  yield  this 
acid  when  heated  with  potash.  Wood  shavings  and  sawdust, 
if  mixed  with  a  solution  of  caustic  potash,  and  exposed  to  a 


216  THE   A3IEPJCAX   DYEK. 

heat  above  212°  Fahr.,  will  be  partially  decomposed  and  con- 
verted into  oxalic  acid ;  and,  at  the  present  time,  a  large 
amount  of  the  commercial  oxalic  acid  is  produced  by  heating 
caustic  potash  and  soda  Avith  sawdust.  As  soda  alone  will* 
not  generate  the  acid,  and  potash  being  too  costly  to  use  alone 
for  the  purpose  of  generating  the  acid,  Mr.  Dale  ascertained 
that  by  mixing  2  equivalents  of  soda  to  1  of  potash,  the  same 
result  was  obtained  as  would  be  if  potash  alone  was  used  with 
the  sawdust. 

Oxalic  acid  is  a  colorless  crystal,  and  has  a  strong  sour 
taste.  The  crystals  are  slender,  flattened,  five-sided  prisms  ; 
they  will  sublime  at  180°  Fahr.,  and  do  not  melt  until  heated 
to  280°  Fahr.  They  will  dissolve  in  nine  times  their  weight 
of  cold,  and  in  an  equal  weight  of  boiling  water.  Oxalic 
acid  combines  with  salifiable  bases,  and  forms  salts  called 
oxalates.  The  most  interesting  of  these  salts  are  the  three 
oxalates  of  j^olassa,  called  oxalate  of  potassa  (K  0,0003), 
hinoxalate  of  jpotassa  (K  O,  2C2O3),  commonly  called  salts  of 
sorrel,  and  the  quadroxalate  of  potassa-  {essential  salts  of 
lemon).  The  two  last-named  are  useful  in  removing  iron 
moulds  from  linen,  and  so  is  oxalic  acid.  This  acid  has  a 
strong  affinity  for  lime,  and  will  form  with  it  an  insoluble 
precipitate  called  oxalate  of  lime  (CaO,C203),  whenever  the 
acid  and  lime  are  brought  in  contact  in  a  solution  of  the  two 
substances,  for  which  reason  oxalic  acid  is  the  best  test  for 
lime,  and  vice  versa,  that  is,  their  solutions  are,  but  when 
lime  is  sought  for,  oxalate  of  ammonia  forms  the  most  con- 
venient test.  The  mutual  attraction  of  the  oxalate  of  ammo- 
nia and  lime  is  so  strong,  that  the  former  will  even  take  the 
latter  from  sulphuric  acid.  By  this  we  see  how  the  addition 
of  a  soluble  oxalate  will  disturb  the  transparency  of  a  solu- 
tion of  sulphate  of  lime  (Ca,  O,  SO3).  Oxalic  acid  is  distin- 
guished from  all  other  crystallized  acids,  by  the  form  of  its 
crystals,  and  by  its  solution  yielding  a  precipitate  with  lime- 
water,  insoluble  in  an  access  of  acid. 

As  we  have   said  before,  oxalic  acid  consists  of  2  equiv- 


THE    AMERICAN    DYEK.  217 

alents  of  carbon  and  3  of  oxygen,  njaking  its  prime  eqniv- 
alent  30 ;  but  when  crystiiUized  we  must  add  3  equiva- 
lents of  water,  HO  =^  27,  thus  making  the  equivalent  of  the 
cr^'stals,  G3.  In  accordance  with  those  chemists  who  consider 
it  a  bibasic  acid,  we  shall  have  to  double  these  numbers^. 
Anhydrous  oxalic  acid  is  not  known  to  exist,  for  two  equiva- 
lents of  the  w^ater  can  be  driven  off  by  a  regulated  heat,  by 
which  the  acid  is  made  to  effloresce  ;  but  the  third  cannot  be 
expelled  without  destroying  the  acid  itself. 

It  was  first  discovered  that  this  acid  was  a  poison  by  Mr. 
Rayston,  in  1814,  since  which  time  it  has  been  investigated 
in  relation  to  its  poisonous  properties  by  the  late  Dr.  A.  T. 
Thomson  of  London,  and  Dr.  Christison  of  Edinburgh  ;  and 
since  it  has  been  found  to  be  a  certain  anc?  rapid  poison,  and 
is  generally  known  as  such,  its  use  has  become  more  frequent 
for  committing  suicide. 

It  is  from  the  generic  appellation,  oxdlis,  that  it  takes  its 
name,  but  in  pharmacy  it  it  called  acidum  oxalicu7n. 

Gallic  Acid  =  Ci^HgOjo ;  dried,  C7H3O5. 

The  process  of  converting  nutgalls  into  gallic  acid,  is 
founded  upon  the  fiict  that,  when  the  galls,  in  the  state  of 
moistened  powder,  are  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  the  tannic 
acid  contained  in  them  is  gradually  converted  into  gallic  acid, 
with  the  absorption  (as  is  generally  believed)  of  oxygen,  and 
the  escape  of  an  equivalent  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  (CO2). 
The  gallic  acid  being  freely  soluble  in  boiling  water,  but 
sparingly  in  cold  water,  is  extracted  from  the  altered  galls  by 
decoction,  and  is  deposited  as  the  water  cools,  and  by  repeat- 
ing the  process  of  dissolving  it  after  each  deposition  renders 
the  acid  more  pure,  but  it  cannot  be  obtained  entirely  color- 
less unless  it  is  filtered  through  animal  charcoal. 

"Dr.  C.  Wetherill  believed  that  gallic  acid  differed  from 
tannic  acid,  simply  by  its  containing  water,  and  he  conceived 
the  idea  of  preparing  gallic  acid  from  tannic  acid  by  the  fixa- 
tion of  water  in  the  gallic  acid.  This  he  brought  about 
28 


218  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

through  the  aid  of  sulphuric  acid  :  he  mixed  thirteen  drachras 
of  tannic  acid  with  twentj'-two  fluid  ounces  of  sulphuric  acid, 
and  four  times  as  much  of  water;  then  heated  the  mixture  to 
the  boiling  point ;  then  allowed  it  to  stand ;  after  a  few  days 
an  abundant  precipitation  of  white  gallic  acid  took  place,  the 
result  of  which,  amounted  to  87.4  per  cent,  of  the  tannic 
acid." — American  Journal  of  Pliarmacij . 

Gallic  acid  crystallizes  in  delicate,  silky  crystals,  which  are 
of  a  slight  brownish  color,  but  when  pure  are  colorless;  they 
have  no  smell,  and  have  a  sourish  astringent  taste.  They 
are,  according  to  Bracannet,  soluble  in  one  hundred  parts  of 
cold  and  three  parts  of  boiling  water  ;  they  are  very  soluble  in 
alcohol ;  they  are  soluble  in  glycerine  in  the  proportion  of 
fort}^  grains  of  crystals  to  the  ounce  of  glycerine,  and  this 
solution  can  be  diluted  with  water  to  any  extent  without  alFect- 
ing  the  transparency  of  the  solution. 

When  gallic  acid  is  heated  to  420^  it  gives  out  carbonic 
acid  (COo),  and  is  changed  to  pyrogallic  acid  (CiiHgOs). 
According  to  Pelouze,  gallic  acid  when  heated  to  410^  or  420°, 
is  resolved  completely  into  carbonic  acid  and  pyrogallic  acid, 
and  the  proportion  of  the  latter  acid  produced  ought  to  be 
nearly  seventy-five  per  cent. 

Gallic  acid,  like  tannic  acid,  reddens  litmus,  and  will  pro- 
duce a  bluish-black  color,  with  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda 
and  copperas  (sulphate  of  iron),  but  the  color  will  disappear 
if  the  solution  is  heated  to  120°  or  above.  This  result  was 
shown  by  Dr.  Mahler  to  depend  on  the  conversion  of  the  gallic 
acid  into  metagallic  acid,  by  the  loss  of  the  constituents  of 
carbonic  acid  and  water. 

Gallic  acid  at  one  time  was  supposed  to  be  the  active  prin- 
ciple of  all  vegetable  astringents,  but  it  lost  this  reputation 
when  the  properties  of  tannic  acid  became  known.  "  Gallic 
acid  has  recently  again  come  into  notice,  and  is  now  thought 
by  many  physicians  to  be  a  more  valuable  astringent  than 
tannic  acid  for  arresting  hemorrhages  when  taken  internally, 
especially  hermorrhage  of  the  urinary  passages." 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  219 

Citric  Acid  =  Q.^HjOn. 
"The  formula  of  this  acid  in  a  dry  state  is  C,JI-Oii,  but 
when  crystallized  from  its  solution  by  merely  coolinir,  it  con- 
tains four  equivalents  of  water,  three  of  those  e(juivalents  arcJ 
basic.  The  "  British  Pharmacopoeia"  gives  the  formula  of  the 
crystallized  acid  thus  —  3HO,Ci2HjOii4-2HO,  thus  giving  it 
two  equivalents  of  water  of  crystallization. 

Citric  acid  is  a  white  solid  crystal,  sometimes  rather 
larger  than  that  of  tartaric  acid,  which  it  resembles;  it 
remains  hard  and  solid  in  a  dry  atmosphere,  but  becomes 
soft  and  moist  in  a  damp  atmosphere;  its  sp.  gr.  is  1.6. 
Its  taste  is  strongly  acid  and  almost  caustic.  When  heated, 
it  will  dissolve  in  its  own  water  of  crystallization,  and,  at  a 
higher  temperature,  it  undergoes  decomposition,  becoming 
yellow  or  brown  colored,  and  forms  a  very  sour,  syrupy  liquid, 
which  cannot  be  crystallized. 

"By  destructive  distillation  it  gives  rise  to  water,  acetic  and 
carbonic  acids,  carburetted  hydrogen,  and  a  voluminous  coal 
is  left." 

Citric  acid  is  soluble  in  about  three-fourths  its  weight  of 
cold  water,  and  in  half  its  weight  of  boiling  water  ;  it  is  soluble 
in  alcohol,  but  insoluble  in  pure  ether.  A  weak  solution  of 
it  has  an  agreeable  taste,  but  when  so  diluted  it  will  not  keep, 
as  it  undergoes  spontaneous  decomposition.  Tartaric  and 
citric  acids  are  frequently  adulterated  by  mixing  one  with -the 
other,  and  grinding  them  into  powder ;  this  can  be  detected 
by  dissolving  a  little  carbonate  of  potash  (pearlash)  in  one  of 
the  suspected  acids,  and  if  there  is  tartaric  acid  in  the  citric 
acid,  the  pearlash  will  cause  a  precipitate  of  cream  of  tartar 
(bitartrate  of  potash)  to  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  test-glass. 

Citric  acid  is  that  peculiar  acid  contained  in  lemons  and 
limes,  to  which  these  fruits  are  indebted  for  their  sourness. 
We  also  find  this  acid  in  the  juice  of  the  cranberry,  red  goose- 
berry, the  currant,  the  strawberry,  the  raspberry,  the  tama- 
rind, and  the  red  elderberry.     This  acid  abounds  so  much  in 


220  THE    AMERICAX   DYEK. 

the  latter  berry,  that  M.  Thibierge  of  Versailles,  France,  pro- 
poses it  as  a  source  for  producing  this  acid  instead  of  obtaining 
it  from  limes  and  lemons. 

We  are  indebted  to  Scheele  for  a  very  simple  process  of 
extracting  the  acid  from  limes  and  lemons.  This  process  con- 
sists, first,  in  saturating  the  boiling  juice  with  chalk  or  whiting 
in  fine  powder,  and  the  citrate  of  lime  is  allowed  to  settle. 
This  citrate  of  lime  is  repeatedly  washed  with  water,  and  then 
decomposed  by  diluted  sulphuric  acid ;  there  is  immediately 
formed  an  insoluble  sulphate  of  lime  (CaOjSOg),  and  the  dis- 
engaged citric  acid  remains  in  the  supernatant  liquor.  This 
is  carefully  concentrated  in  leaden  boilers,  until  a  pellicle 
begins  to  form,  when  it  is  drawn  ofi*  into  other  vessels  where 
it  cools  and  crystallizes. 

The  method  of  manufacturing  citric  acid,  as  a  general  rule, 
is  the  same  as  that  for  tartaric  acid  (see  tartaric  acid),  with' 
these  exceptions  :  the  citric  acid  is  not  subjected  to  so  great  a 
degree  of  heat,  citric  acid  being  liable  to  decomposition  if 
subjected  to  too  high  a  temperature ;  and  in  the  process,  the 
citrate  of  lime  should  be  decomposed  without  delay,  for  if 
kept,  for  any  length  of  time,  it  will  undergo  fermoitation, 
which  would  destrojthe  citric  acid.  The  products  of  this  fer- 
mentation would  be  acetic  and  butyric  acids,  and  carbonic 
acid  and  hydrogen  would  be  evolved. 

It  is  necessary  to  add  occasionally  a  small  proportion  of 
sulphuric  acid  to  the  citric  acid  liquor,  during  the  progress  of 
its  concentration.  With  the  al)ove  exceptions,  citric  acid  is 
manufiictured  by  the  same  processes  that  tartaric  acid  is. 

According  to  Mr.  Parkes,  a  gallon  of  either  lime  or  lemon 
juice,  if  the  process  is  well  conducted,  will  yield  eight  ounces 
of  white  crystals.  But  to  obtain  this  amount,  it  depends  on 
the  proportion  of  citric  acid  contained  in  the  juice,  which  is 
very  variable.  The  more  recently  the  juice  has  been  extracted 
from  the  fruit,  the  better  will  be  the  quality  of  the  acid.  The 
juice,  after  it  becomes  stale,  is  quite  sour,  and  does  not  con- 


THE    AMERICAX   DYER.  221 

tain  any  citric  acid,  because  of  its  having  undergone  the  acetic 
fermentation. 

There  were  some  suggestions  made  in  the  "  Chemical  News," 
by  Mr.  Frederick  Row,  in  which  he  stated  that  the  lime  or 
lemon  juice  imported,  from  which  most  of  the  acid  is  pre- 
pared, contains  so  much  coloring  matter,  mucilage,  and  other 
impurities,  as  very  much  to  impede  the  process,  so  that  it' 
became  necessary  to  make  repeated  crystallizations  and  satu- 
rations, in  order  to  render  the  crystals  tit  for  the  market.  It 
seems  that  the  acid  imported  has  undergone  concentration, 
for  the  obvious  purposes  of  enabling  it  to  keep  better,  and  to 
reduce  the  expense  of  freighting. 

Mr.  Row  states,  however,  that  he  has  found  that  much  of 
the  difficulty  may  be  obviated,  by  diluting  the  concentrated 
liquor,  so  that  it  shall  have  the  strength  of  the  fresh  juice,  by 
which  operation  much  of  the  mucilage  aud  other  impurities, 
will  be  made  to  separate  in  a  flocculent  form,  and  the  citrate 
of  lime,  and  consequently  the  citric  acid,  will  be  obtained  in 
a  state  of  comparative  purity. 

"  One  hundred  grains  of  citric  acid  saturate  one  hundred 
and  fifty  grains  of  bicarbonate  of  potash." 

Citric  acid,  as  well  as  tartaric  and  acetic  acids,  are  seldom 
used  in  woolen  dyeing. 

Citric  acid  is  used  in  calico-printing,  both  as  a  resist  and 
discharge. 

Acetic  AciD^rCiHgOg. 

Acetic  acid  is  of  the  specific  gravity  of  1.047,  and  contains 
thirty-six  per  cent,  of  monoJiydrated  acetic  acid  (HO,PO.j). 
This  is  an  acid  liquor  produced  from  wood,  by  destructive 
distillation  and  subsequent  purification ;  and  one  hundred 
parts  by  weight  contain  thirty-three  parts  of  the  acetic  acid 
(HO,C4H303),  which  corresponds  to  about  twenty-eight  parts 
of  the  anhydrous  acetic  acid  (C4H3O3)  ;  but  the  concentrated 
acetic  acid  corresponds  to  at  least  eight3'-four  per  cent,  of  an- 
hydrous or  the  commercial  acetic  acid. 


222  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

We  shall  consider  but  three  grades  of  acetic  acid,  the  gla- 
cial acetic  acid,  acidum  aceticum  gJaciale,  and  the  acidum  ace- 
ticmn,  or  pyroligneous  acid,  and  the  acetic  acid  of  commerce. 

The  acidum  aceticum  glackde  acid,  sometimes  called  radical 
vinegar,  \s  a  colorless,  volatile,  inflammable  liquid,  having  a 
corrosive  taste,  and  a  acetous,  pungent,  and  at  the  same  time 
■a  refreshing  odor.  It  crystallizes  when  exposed  to  a  temper- 
ature of  34°  Fahr.,  and  will  remain  in  a  crystalline  state  until 
heated  to  50°  Fahr.  "Its  specific  gravity  is  l.0(J3,"  but  cau 
be  increased  by  adding  ten  per  cent,  of  its  weight  of  water, 
when  its  density  will  rise  to  the  specific  gravity  of  1.066. 
This  acid  has  the  property  of  dissolving  a  number  of  sub- 
stances, among  which  we  will  name  camphor,  resins,  gums, 
albumen,  and  the  volatile  oils. 

"Its  combinations  with  salifiable  bases  are  called  acetates." 

"A  drachm  of  this  acid,  mixed  with  a  fluid  ounce  of  distilled 
water,  requires  for  neutralization,  at  least  nine  hundred  and 
ninety  grain  measures  of  volumetric  solution  of  soda.'" 

"If  a  fluid  drachm  is  mixed  with  half  a  fluid  ounce  of  dis- 
tilled water,  and  half  a  drachm  of  pure  muriatic  acid,  and  put 
into  a  small  flask  with  a  few  pieces  of  granulated  zinc,  and 
while  the  effervescence  continues,  a  slip  of  bil)ulous  paper 
wetted  with  a  solution  of  subacetate  of  lead  be  suspended  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  flask,  above  the  liquor,  for  five  minutes, 
the  paper  will  not  become  discolored." 

This  shows  clearl}'  the  absence  of  sulphurous  acid  in  this 
kind  of  acetic  acid.  It  consists  of  one  equivalent  of  dry  acid 
=51,  and  one  equivalent  of  water=9,  making  its  prime 
equivalent=60. 

The  dry  acid  has  been  isolated  by  C.  Gerhardt,  who  finds 
it  to  be  a  limpid  liquid,  heavier  than  water,  and  having  the 
constant  boiling  point  of  279°. 

The  process  generally  adopted  by  the  British  manufacturers 
of  this  acid,  is  as  follows  : — 

"One  hundred  weight  of  purified  acetate  of  soda,  which 
had  been  previously  deprived  of  water  by  fusion,  and  broken 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  223 

up  after  cooling,  was  digested  with  sixty  pounds  of  siilpluiric 
acid,  specific  gravity  1.848,  and  then  heated  in  a  still  till 
all  the  acetic  acid  was  driven  over."  "This  was  re-distilled, 
in  a  chloride  of  calcium  (CaCI),  or  else  an  oil-bath,  with 
peroxide  of  manganese,  and  afterwards  again  distilled  from 
charcoal  and  peroxide  of  lead,  the  acid  thus  procured  being 
placed  in  ice,  and  in  a  great  measure  solidified  ;  and  the  liquid 
portion  being  decanted,  the  solid  residue,  when  melted,  had 
the  specific  gravity  of  1.0G7,  and  contained  ninety-eight  per 
cent,  of  the  monohydrated  acid." 

This  grade  of  acetic  acid  is  not  used  in  the  dye-house,  but 
is  used  by  physicians,  who  apply  it  externally  as  a  substitute 
for  cantharides  (blister  paste),  when  a  speedy  blister  is 
desired,  in  such  cases  as  croup,  sore  throat,  and  other  cases 
of  internal  inflammation.  It  is  an  excellent  substance  to  eat 
out  corns  and  warts.  , 

Taktaijic  AciDz^CgH^Oio. 

This  acid  is  extracted  from  the  tartar  which  collects  upon 
the  inside  of  wine-casks  during  the  fermentation  of  the  wine. 
This  tartar,  when  purified  and  reduced  to  powder,  is  the  cream 
of  tartar  of  the  a^Jothecaries,  antl  consists  of  two  equivalents 
of  tartaric  acid  united  to  one  equivalent  of  potash  (potassa). 

Tartaric  acid  was  first  obtained,  in  a  separate  state,  by 
Scheele,  in  1770.  His  process  consisted  in  saturating  the 
excess  of  acid  in  the  (bitartrate  of  potassa)  cream  of  tartar 
with  carbonate  of  lime  (CaOCOj),  and  decomposing  the 
resulting  insoluble  tartrate  of  lime  (CaO,C4H205)  by  sulphuric 
acid  (H2SO3),  which  precipitates  in  combination  with  the 
lime,  and  liberates  the  tartaric  acid  ;  the  equivalent  quanti- 
ties being  one  of  bitartrate  of  potash,  and  one  of  carbonate 
of  lime  (chalk). 

The  process,  when  thus  conducted,  furnishes  the  second 
equivalent,  or  excess  of  acid  only  of  the  bitartrate.  This 
second  equivalent  may  be  obtained  by  decomposing  the  neu- 
tral tartrate  of  potassa  (potash),  which  remains  in  the  solu- 


224  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

tion  after  the  tartrate  of  lime  (CaO,C4H20-;)  is  precipitated 
\?ith  chloride  of  calcium  (CaCl)  in  excess.  By  double  decom- 
position, chloride  of  potassium  (KCl)  will  be  formed  in 
solution,  and  a  second  portion  of  tartrate  of  lime  will  pre- 
cipitate, which  may  be  decomposed  by  sulphuric  acid  together 
with  the  first  portion.  If  the  process  is  conducted  in  this 
manner,  it  will,  of  course,  furnish  twice  as  much  tartaric  acid 
as  when  the  excess  of  acid  only  is  saturated  and  set  free. 

The  method  adopted  for  manufacturing  tartaric  acid  on  the 
large  scale,  differs  greatly  from  the  above  method.  The  de- 
compositions spoken  of  above  are  effected  in  a  wooden  vessel, 
closed  at  the  toj)  (called  a  generator),  which  will  hold  about 
2,000  gallons.  This  vessel  is  furnished  with  an  exit-pipe  for 
carbonic  acid  (CO^),  and  with  pipes  entering  the  sides  of  the 
generator,  for  the  admission  of  steam  and  cold  water  respect- 
ivel}'.  This  vessel  is  tilkd  one-fourth  with  water.  Then 
1,500  pounds  of  washed  chalk  (carbonate  of  lime)  is  added, 
and  then  the  whole  is  heated  by  a  jet  of  steam  through  the 
pipes  in  the  side.  It  is  then  thoroughly  mixed  until  a  uni- 
form mass  is  obtained.  About  two  tons  of  tartar  are  now 
added  by  degrees,  and  thoroughly  mixed.  The  carbonate  of 
lime  is  decomposed  ;  the  carbonic  acid  escapes  through  the 
exit-pipe,  and  the  lime  unites  with  the  excess  of  tartaric  acid, 
to  form  tartrate  of  lime,  which  precipitates  ;  while  the  neutral 
tartrate  of  potash  remains  in  solution.  The  next  operation  is 
to  decompose  the  tartrate  of  potash,  so  as  to  convert  its  tar- 
taric acid  into  tartrate  of  lime.  This  is  accomplished  b}'  the 
addition  of  sulphate  of  lime  (CaO,SO;j),  made  into  paste, 
and,  by  double  decomposition,  will  form  a  fresh  portion  of 
tartrate  of  lime,  while  sulphate  of  potash  remains  in  solution. 
This  solution;  when  it  becomes  clear,  is  drawn  off  into  suita- 
ble vessels,  and  the  precipitate  (which  is  tartrate  of  lime)  is 
washed  several  times  in  cold  water. '  These  washings  are  pre- 
served, to  use  again  for  the  same  purpose.  The  tartrate  of 
lime,  mixed  with  sufficient  water,  is  now  defomposed  by  the 
proper  amount  of  sulphuric  acid,  which  forms  sulphate  of 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  225 

lime,  and  liberates  the  tarturic  acid,  which  remains  in  the 
solution.  It  is  all  now  drawn  oflf  into  a  wooden  tank,  lined 
with  lead,  with  a  perforated  false  bottom.  This  is  covered 
with  stout  twilled  flannel,  and  serves  for  a  filter.  The  solu- 
tion filters  through,  and  is  carried  by  a  pipe  going  from 
beneath  the  false  bottom  to  suitable  reservoirs.  The  whole 
liquor  is  evaporated  in  order  to  crystallize.  Then  this  liquor 
is  evaporated  to  the  specific  gravity  of  1.5  (1^  degrees). 
It  is  drawn  off  into  sheet-lead  cylindrical  crystallizing  vessels, 
that  hold  five  hundred  pounds  of  the  solution  each.  These 
cr^^stallizing  vessels  are  placed  in  a  warm  situation,  and,  in 
the  course  of  three  or  four  days,  a  crop  of  crj'stals  is  produced 
in  each,  averaging  two  hundred  pounds.  These  crystals  are 
somewhat  colored,  so  they  have  to  be  purified  by  re-dissolving 
in  hot  water.  The  solution  is  then  run  through  animal  char- 
coal, filtered,  again  concentrated  and  crystallized.  The  crys- 
tals are  now  washed  and  drained,  and  finally  dried  on  wooden 
trays  lined  with  sheet-lead,  placed  in  a  room  heated  by  steam. 

Dr.  Price  of  England  made  some  great  improvements  in  the 
above  process,  which  are  described  in  detail  in  the  "London 
Pharmaceutical  Journal  and  Transactions"  (January,  1854, 
page  315). 

Liebig  prepared  tartaric  acid  artificially  by  the  oxidation  of 
sugar  of  milk  and  other  substances,  by  nitric  acid.  The 
resulting  product  was  found  to  be  identical  in  all  respects 
with  the  tartaric  acid  obtained  from  grapes. 

Tartaric  acid  is  a  white  crystallized  substance.  It  is  not 
affected  by  the  titmosphere.  It  has  a  strong  acid  taste;  but 
when  diluted  with  water,  it  has  a  very  agreeable  and  cooling 
taste,  not  unlike  lemonade.  It  is  soluble  in  an  equal  amount 
of  cold  water,  and  in  half  its  weight  of  boiling  water.  It  is 
also  soluble  in  alcohol.  It  combines  with  several  of  the  vege- 
table organic  alkalies,  so  as  to  form  salts.  Its  usual  impurity 
is  sulphuric  acid,  which  can  be  detected  with  acetate  of  lead 
(PbCCiHsOg).     By   adding  a    small  quantity  to  a  solution 

29 


226  THE    AIMEKICAN   DYER. 

of  tartaric  acid,  a  precipitate  will  be  formed  that  is  only  par- 
tially soluble  in  nitric  acid. 

Tartaric  acid,  when  dry,  consists  of  four  equivalents  of  car- 
bon, two  of  hydrogen,  and  five  of  oxygen,  making  its  equiva- 
lent sixty-six,  thus  ; 

4  C=24, 

2H=r:02, 

5  0=40=66, 

and,  when  crystallized,  of  one  equivalent  of  dry  acid,  66, 
and  one  of  water,  9  =  75.  But  if  we  should  agree  with 
some  chemists,  who  regard  it  as  bibasic,  these  numbers 
must  be  doubled,  and  the  formula  of  the  dry  acid  would 
be  CgHgOio,  and,  in  its  crystallized  state,  2HO,C8H20io. 
Taking  this  view,  its  ordinary  salts,  whether  with  one  or  two 
bases,  consis|,  of  one  equivalent  of  acid,  and  tjvo  of  base; 
and,  in  the  bitartrates  of  potash  (potassa),  one  equivalent  of 
base  is  replaced  by  one  of  water,  as  in  the  cream  of  tartar 
(bitartrate  of  potassa),  the  constitution  of  which  would  be 
expressed  by  the  formula,  KCHO+CsHj^Oio. 

Tartaric  acid  is  not  used  to  a  very  great  extent  in  woolen- 
dyeing,  but  it  is  employed  largely  in  calico-printing,  both  as 
an  auxiliary  in  the  solution  for  printing,  and  as  a  discharge  for 
alumina  and  oxide  of  iron,  employed  as  mordants.  Some- 
times this  acid  is  mixed  with  bisulphate  of  soda  (NaHSO^), 
to  form  a  discharge  in  calico-printing.  A  piece  of  cloth  dyed 
red  or  blue,  to  which,  in  certain  parts,  there  is  applied  a 
mixture  of  tartaric  acid,  pipe-clay,  and  gum*  (the  latter  as 
thickening  to  give  consistency) ,  becomes  immediately  bleached 
when  the  cloth  so  prepared  is  immersed  in  a  solution  ot 
bleaching  powder,  —  chloride  of  lime  (CaCl),  or  chloride  of 
calcium. 

Tannic  Acid  {Acidum  Tannicurnj^Q^^ll-Jdc^-l-?)  HO. 
Pure  tannic  acid  is  a  solid,  uncrystallizable,  slightly  yellow 
colored  substance.     It  is  inodorous,  very  astringent  to  the 


THE    AMERICAX   DYER.  227 

taste,  but  having  no  bitterness.  It  is  very  sohiblc  in  water. 
Much  loss  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether.  It  is  insoluble  in  the 
volatile  and  fixed  oils.  The  commercial  tannic  acid  often  has 
a  decided  odor.  This  is  chiefly  owing  to  the  presence  of  the 
odorous  principle  of  the  nutgalls  from  which  it  is  obtained. 
Pure  tannic  acid  can  be  kept  unchanged  in  the  solid  state ; 
but  its  watery  solution,  when  exposed  to  the  atmosphere, 
gradually  becomes  turbid,  and  deposits  a  crystalline  matter, 
which  consists  chiefly  of  gallic  acid  (C7II3O5).  During  the 
change,  oxygen  is  absorbed,  and  an  eijual  volume  of  carbonic 
acid  disengaged.  But  according  to  the  researches  of  M.  E. 
Robiquet,  this  change  does  not  always  take  place,  and,  when 
it  does  happen,  it  is  owing  to  the  presence  o(  pectase  in  the 
tannin.  But  if  the  solution  of  tannic  acid  were  boiled  for  a 
long  time,  the  2>^^^<^^^  w'ould  lose  its  property  of  a  ferment, 
and  the  solution  could  then  be  kept  for  an  indefinite  time 
without  sulferino;  a  chano;e. 

Tannic  acic,  when  exposed  to  a  certain  degree  of  heat,  will 
partially  melt,  swell  up,  become  black,  take  fire,  and  will 
burn  with  a  very  brilliant  flame.  By  being  thrown  upon  red- 
hot  iron,  it  is  entirely  dissipated. 

A  solution  of  tannin  will  redden  litmus,  and  it  will  com- 
bine with  most  of  the  salifiable  bases.  It  forms  with  potash 
a  compound  which  is  but  slightly  soluble,  and  the  tannin  can 
be  precipitated  from  its  solutio)i  by  potash,  or  its  carbonates, 
if  the  solution  is  not  too  weak,  although  a  certain  amount  of 
potash  will  cause  the  precipitate  to  re-dissolve. 

Tannic  acid,  in  combination  with  soda,  is  much  more  solu- 
ble than  with  potash,  and  this  alkali  does  not  precipitate  the 
acid,  unless  the  solution  is  highly  concentrated  with  tannic 
acid.  Ammonia  has  a  re-action  upon  this  acid,  very  similar 
to  potash. 

Very  many  of  the  metallic  salts  are  precipitated  by  tannic 
acid,  even  in  their  uncombined  states,  especially  such  as  cop- 
per, lead,  silver,  mercury,  chromium,  protoxide  of  tin,  &c. 
With  scsquioxide  of  iron  (Fe.jO^)   it  will  form  a  black  pre- 


228  THE    AMERICAX   DYER. 

cipitate,  this  being  a  compound  of  tannic  acid  and  the  sesqui- 
oxide,  this  compound  being  the  basis  of  ink. 

Tannic  acid  will  unite  with  all  the  vesfetable  orfjanic  alka- 
lies,  and  form  compounds  which,  as  a  general  rule,  have  a 
whitish  color,  and  are  very  slightly  soluble  in  water,  but  are 
soluble  in  acetic  acid  (QHgO-)  and  alcohol.  In  this  latter 
respect  it  differs  from  most  of  the  compounds  which  tannic 
acid  forms  with  other  vegetable  principles. 

"The  ultimate  constituents  of  tannic  acid  are,  carbon, 
hj'drogen,  and  oxygen,  and  its  formula,  according  to  Liebig, 
is,  CisHyOj2,  or  CjgH^Oy+SHO;  to  Berzelius,  when  made 
from  galls,  Q^HigOgi+S  HO.  MuUer,  however,  from  recent 
investigations,  considers  that  it  is  isomeric  with  gallic  acid*, 
and  gives  its  formula  thus :  CogHyOiy+HO.  Strecker  looks 
upon  it  as  a  compound  of  gallic  acid  and  sugar,  and  has  for 
its  formula,  C54Hiy03i,  for  the  anhydrous  acid,  which  by  the 
addition  of  three  equivalents  of  water,  becomes  the  hx^drated 
acid,  C54H22O34,  differing  from  Liebig's  by  two  equivalents  of 
water." —  Chemical  Gazette,  No.  287,  p.  370. 

From  thirty  to  thirty-five  per  cent,  of  tannic  acid  is  ob- 
tained from  nutgalls  by  Pelouze's  method,  while  Leconnot's 
method  is  said  to  yield  sixty  per  cent.  Mr.  H.  R.  Bcnvman, 
of  Philadelphia,  obtained  80.07  per  cent,  of  tannic  acid  from 
selected  nutgalls. 

All  kinds  of  tannic  acids  are,  when  in  contact  with  alkaline 
solutions,  such  as  lime-water,  caustic  potash,  ammonia,  and 
with  the  simultaneous  presence  of  air,  decomposed  and  con- 
verted into  brown-colored  substances. 

There  is  a  drug  similar  to  cutch,  that  contains  from  thirty 
to  forty  per  cent,  of  tannic  acid.  This  substance  is  extracted 
from  the  following  plants,  and  called  kino  : 

African  kino,  from  Pterocarjtus  erinaceus. 

East  India  kino,  from     Pterocarpus  Marsupium. 
West  India  kino,  from  Coceolaha  uvifera. 
Australian  kino,  from    Eucalyptus  resinifera. 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  229 

This  substance  is  met  with  in  the  market  in  angular,  brittle 
masses,  of  a  brown-red  color,  sometimes  of  a  blackish  color. 
AVhen  it  is  ground  into  powder  it  is  always  of  a  l)r()wn-red 
color.  It  is  quite  soluble  in  hot  water,  also  in  alcohol,  and 
yields  a  blood-red  solution,  having  a  very  astringent  and 
sweet  taste.  It  is  as  valuable  for  coloring  cotton  as  cutch, 
but  is  not  so  common  or  plentiful  in  the  market ;  in  fact,  it  is 
scarcely  found  in  commerce,  except  at  the  druggist's. 

In  the  investigations  of  Pelouze  upon  tannin,  he  found  that 
if  it  were  kept  from  exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  there  would 
be  no  change  eflfectedin  its  properties  ;  but  if  it  was  exposed 
to  the  atmosphere,  it  would  imbibe  oxygen,  and  the  tannia 
would  be  changed  to  gallic  acid  ;  for  which  reason  he  con- 
cluded that  gallic  acid  did  not  exist  in  very  minute  quantities 
in  vegetables,  and  the  supposition  that  tannic  and  gallic  acids 
existed  together  in  vegetables,  arose  from  the  process  which 
was  adopt  d  to  procure  gallic  acid,  this  process  being  to  allow 
the  macerated  vegetable  matter  to  l)e  exposed  to  the  atmos- 
phere until  the  gallic  acid  should  crystallize  from  the  solution, 
this  being  nothing  more  than  converting  tannin  into  gallic 
acid  by  the  absorption  of  oxygen. 

More  recent  investigations  have  shown  us  that  tannin  is 
convertible  into  gallic  acid,  by  much  more  rapid  means  than 
the  above  process.  These  means  are  by  the  processes  of  fer- 
mentation. "The  action  which  is  considered  to  take  place 
during  the  fermentation  of  the  tannin  by  exposure  to  the  air, 
is  that  it  absorbs  or  combines  with  eight  proportions  of  oxy- 
gen from  the  afmosphere."  —  Pelouze. 

It  requires  considerable  time  for  a  solution  of  nutgalls, 
exposed  to  the  air,  before  its  tannin  will  be  converted  into 
gallic  acid  ;  but  by  adding  tartaric  or  malic  acids  to  the  solu- 
tion,  it  will   cause   the   formation   of  gallic  acid  to  proceed 

more  rapidly.  ^   • 

"It  has  long  been  known  that  gallic  acid  does  not  precipi- 
tate copperas,  when  it  is  kept  from  exposure  to  the  atmos- 
phere.    Persoz,  Chevreul,  and  Berzelius  observed  that  gallic 


230  THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 

acid,  when  it  was  mixed  with  a  salt  of  the   peroxide   of  iron 
(Fe^O;j),  is  always  reduced  to  the  state  of  a  proto-salt." 

"This  is  easily  proved,  by  adding  to  the  blue  solution 
caused  by  the  admixture  of  gallic  acid  and  iron,  an  excess  of 
acetate  of  lead  (CaO,C4H303),  or  of  carbonate  of  lime  (CaO 
CO^,),  which  precipitates  the  blue  combination,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  sulphuric  acid  contained  in  the  persulphate  of 
iron,  a  colorless  liquid,  is  separated  by  filtration,  in  which 
the  presence  of  iron  may  be  demonstrated  in  the  state  of  a  ' 
protoxide  (FeO)." 

"These  experiments  are  insufficient  to  explain  this  curious 
re-action.  It  is  not  improbable  to  admit  that  the  oxygen, 
combining  with  the  gallic  acid,  converts  it  into  a  new  acid  of 
a  blue  color,  yet  positive  experiments  are  wanting  to  decide 
the  point." 

"When  a  solution  of  gallic  acid  is  poured  by  drops  into  a 
solution  of  persulphate  of  iron  (FegOySSO^)  in  excess,  no 
blue  coloring  is  obtained  ;  if  there  is  one  produced  it  is  but 
momentary.  Nor  is  there  one  formed  with  the  same  salt  in 
minimum  in  presence  of  chlorine,  nor  with  a  proto-salt  of 
iron  (copperas)  and  gallic  acid  oxidized  in  various  degrees  by 
chlorine,  or  by  a  salt  of  silver  (AgO,N05  =  nitrate  of  silver),  or 
lastly,  by  the  atmosphere  in  an  alkaline  solution  of  gallic  acid. 
When  a  solution  of  gallic  acid  is  poured  into  a  solution  of  the 
persulphate  of  iron,  and  the  liquid  is  thrown  down  by  the  ace- 
tate of  lead  (PbO,C4Ho03  =  sugar  of  lead),  there  will  be  a 
blue  paste  precipitated,  and  if  this  precipitate  is  treated  with 
oxalic  acid  (C2O3+3HO)  it  forms  the  soluble  oxalate  of 
iron  (FeO,G,03+4HO),  the  blue  color  entirely  disappears, 
but  can  be  brought  back  to  blue  again  by  adding  a  little 
acetate  of  soda  (NaO,QH303)." 

To  prove  in  the  most  positive  manner  that  the  blue  coloring 
is  not  to  be  ascribed  to  a  blue  acid,  M.  Barreswil  endeavored 
to  obtain  other  blue  salts  from  gallic  acid,  by  the  use  of  sul- 
phuric acid.  He  prepared  some  mixtures  of  the  protosul- 
phate  of  iron  and  the  persulphate  of  iron,  in  variable  propor- 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  231 

tions,  and  to  avoid  the  separation  of  the  two  above-iiained 
salts  of  iron,  from  their  different  degrees  of  solubility,  he 
removed,  as  soon  as  possible,  the  water,  by  adding  to  the 
solution  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  largely  in  excess,  avoid- 
ing raising  the  heat  as  much  as  possible.  In  this  manner  he 
obtained  a  thick  paste  of  a  deej^  blue,  the  hue  of  which  was 
more  or  less  pure  according  to  the  pr()[)()rtion  of  the  two 
salts  of  iron.  He  also  produced  a  blue  sulphate  by  evaporat- 
ing rapidly  a  mixture  of  the  two  salts  of  iron ;  the  blue  tint 
appeared  at  the  moment  when  the  mass  was  nearly  dry.  His 
next  experiment  was  to  use  phosphate  of  soda  (2NaOP50) 
in  place  of  the  sulphuric  acid.  The  result  was  a  deep  blue 
phosphate  of  iron  (SFeOPOr,),  and  some  sulphate  of  soda 
(NaSOy),  which  removed  the  water  immediately.  In  all 
his  experiments  the  hyposulphite  of  soda  (NaOjS^O.j+THO) 
alone  afforded  an  intense  blue  coloring.  This  is  not  surprising  ; 
there  are  numerous  instances  in  chemistry  of  bases  which  will 
combine  with  certain  acids,  but  will  not  unite  with  others, 
among  which  is  the  protoxide  of  copper  (CuO). 


ACETIC  ACID  OF  COMMERCE. 

This  acid  is  very  similar  to  the  glacial  acetic  ficid  in  its 
properties,  but  milder  in  degree.  It  is  a  colorless,  volatile 
liquid,  and  has  a  sharp  taste  and  pungent  smell.  It  will 
unite  in  all  proportions  with  water,  and,  to  a  certain  extent, 
with  alcohol.  It  is  entirely  volatilized  by  heat,  and  yields  no 
precipitate  with  either  nitrate  of  silver  (AgNO^)  or  chloride 
of  barium  (BaCl).  Sulphohydrate  of  ammonia  (NllyllS)  will 
not  discolor  it. 

This  acid  is  sometimes  contaminated  with  empyreumatic 
oils,  which  is  due  to  the  method  of  manufacturing  If  there 
is  much  of  this  impurity  in  the  acid,  it  will  betray  itself  by 
the  taste  and  smell ;  but  if  it  is  too  minute  to  be  detected  by 


2152  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

smell  or  taste,  the  test  for  its  detection,  according  to  Mr. 
John  Lightfoot,  is  to  neutralize  the  acid  with  carbonate  of 
potash  (KO,CO,)  and  adding  a  solution  of  perni:inganate  of 
potash  (KO,Mu^,0;)  ;  and  if  the  acid  is  pure  it  will  retain  its 
color,  but  if  it  is  not  pure  the  permanganate  of  potassa  will 
be  decolorized,  and  after  standing  a  while  there  will  be  a 
brown  precipitate  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  solution.  If 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  (HS)  is  added  to  a  solution  of  acetic 
acid  it  will  produce  a  milkiness,  if  sulphurous  acid' (SO.,)  is 
present.  When  saturated  with  ammonia  (Nlly)  the  acetic 
acid  will  not  precipitate  with  either  the  iodide  (KI)  or  the 
ferrocyanide  of  potassium  (K^FeCyo),  showing  the  absence 
of  lead  and  copper  in  the  acid. 

Of  the  United  States  acetic  acid  (specific  gravity  1.047)  "  100 
grains  will  saturate  60  grains  of  crystallized  bicarbonate  of 
potassa  (potash,  K02C0^,-|~H0),  and  contains  36  grains  of 
monohydrate  acetic  acid"  (HOPO.3).  This,  we  see,  corre- 
sponds exactly  with  the  percentage  given  in  the  table  of  specific 
gravities  for  acetic  acid.  Of  the  British  acetic  acid  of  com- 
merce  (specific  gravity,  1.044)  the  strength  in  the  anhydrous 
acetic  acid  is  2S  per  cent.  ;  in  strength  of  monohydrated 
acetic  acid  it  is,  according  to  the  table,  33  per  cent. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  ascertain  the  strength  of  acetic  acid 
b}'  saturating  it  with  the  carbonated  alkalies,  if  the  operator 
depends  upon  test-paper  for  ascertaining  the  point  of  neutral- 
ization. The  difficulty  is  caused  by  the  acetates  of  potash 
and  soda  being  alkaline  to  test-paper;  although  they  are  neu- 
tral in  composition,  the  liquid  begins  to  be  alkaline  to  test- 
paper,  while  some  free  acid  remains,  but  insufficient  to  over- 
come the  alkaline  re-action  of  the  salt  formed  by  the  combi- 
nation ;  therefore,  by  the  use  of  test-paper,  the  strength  of 
the  acid  is  always  underrated.  The  degree  of  inaccuracy, 
where  test-paper  is  used,  would  be  much  diminished  if  the 
acid  was  saturated  with  a  solution  of  saccharate  of  lime 
(sugar  and  slacked  lime,  dissolved  in  distilled  water)  of  a 
known  strength,  as  is  proposed  by  Mr.  C.  G.  Williams.     A 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  233 

still  better  way,  according  to  Prof.  Redwood,  is  to  add  to  the 
acid  a  weighed  excess  of  carbonate  of  l)aryta  (BaO,CO.,), 
and  to  calculate  its  strength  by  the  amount  of  carbonate 
which  is  decomposed,  ascertaining  by  deducting  the  undis- 
solved carbonate  from  the  total  amount  used.  E.  C.  Nichol- 
son and  D.  S.  Price  say  ("Chemical  Gazette")  that  equally 
accurate  results  may  be  obtained  by  using  carbonate  of  lime 
(chalk)  in  a  similar  manner.  The  acetic  acid  of  commerce  is 
the  kind  etnployed  by  color-mixers  for  reds,  pinks,  purples, 
&c.,  in  combination  with  other  substances;  it  is  also  used 
sometimes  as  a  discharge,  but  not  so  general  as  tartaric  acid. 

Ckude  Acetic  Acid,  or  Pyroligneous  Acid. 

The  specific  gravity  of  this  acid  ranges  from  1.044  to  1.047, 
and  is  obtained  by  the  destructive  distillation  of  wood,  and  is 
called  v,nide  j>7/roU(/neoiis  acid. 

Wood,  when  charred,  yields  a  number  of  volatile  sub- 
stances, among  which  are  an  acid  liquor,  creosote,  tar,  and  a 
variety  of  other  substances,  some  of  which  have  very  singular 
properties,  which  properties  some  eminent  chemists  suppose 
might  be  made  serviceable  in  dyeing;  but  as  yet,  crystallized 
acetic  acid  (C^H^Os  +  IIO)  and  pyroligneous  acid  (C^HgO^) 
are  the  only  grades  of  acetic  acid  used,  and  these  are  not 
made  use  of  in  woolen-dyeing  ;  but  in  calico-printing  and  cot- 
ton-dyeing these  two  substances  are  extensively  employed. 

The  carbonization  of  wood  in  closed  vessels  for  the  purpose 
of  manufacturing  crude  acetic  acid  (pyroligneoiis  acid)  was 
first  put  into  extensive  practice  by  Mollerat  of  France,  and  is 
thus  descril:)ed  by  Thenard  :  The  method  consists  of,  tirst, 
a  furnace  with  a  movable  top;  second,  a  strong  sheet-iron 
cylinder,  standing  upright,  large  enough  to  hold  a  cord 
of  wood,  and  furnished  with  a  sheet-iron  cover;  third,  a 
sheet-iron  tube  proceeding  horizontally  from  the  upper  and 
lateral  part  of  the  cylinder  to  the  distance  of  about  one  foot ; 
fourth,  a  copper  tube  connected  with  the  sheet-iron  tu))e, 
which  is  bent  in  such  a  manner  as  to  plunge  successively  to 
30 


234  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

the  bottom  of  two  casks  filled  with  water,  and,  after  rising 
out  of  the  second,  is  bent  back,  and  made  to  terminate  in  the 
furnace.  At  the  bottom  of  each  cask  the  tube  dilates  into  a 
ball,  from  the  upper  part  of  which  another  tube  proceeds, 
which,  passing  water-tight  through  the  cask,  terminates  above 
a  vessel  intended  to  receive  the  condensable  products.  The 
sheet-iron  cylinder  being  filled  with  wood  (some  manufactur- 
ers in  this  country  use  sawdust  instead  of  wood),  the  cover  is 
then  put  on  and  luted  with  fire-cla}',  and  let  do\tn  into  the 
furnace  by  the  means  of  a  crane.  The  fire  is  then  applied  to  the 
furnace,  and  when  the  process  is  completed  the  cylinder  is 
hoisted  out,  and  another  lowered  into  the  furnace,  filled  as 
before.  During  the  carbonization,  the  volatile  products  are 
received  by  the  tube,  and  those  which  are  condensable,  being 
an  acid  liquor  and  tar,  are  condensed  by  the  water  in  the 
casks,  and  collected  in  the  lower  bends  of  the  tubes,  from 
which  they  run  into  the  several  receivers,  or  reservoirs,  while 
the  incondensable  products,  being  inflammable  gases,  are  dis- 
charged into  the  furnace,  where,  by  their  combustion,  they 
assist  in  keeping  up  the  heat  in  the  furnace.  Eight  hundred 
pounds  of  wood  afi'ord,  on  an  average,  thirt^^-five  gallons  of 
acid  liquor,  which  weighs  about  three  hundred  pounds.  This 
is  the  crude  pyroligneous  acid,  sometimes  called  j^yrolig- 
neous  vinegar,  although  it  was  long  since  known  that  it  is 
simply  acetic  acid  (or  vinegar).  It  is  a  dark-brown  liquid, 
having  a  strong,  smoky  smell,  and  consists  of  acetic  acid 
diluted  with  water,  and  holding  in  solution  tar  and  pyroxylic 
spirit  (C2H3O4-HO  =  methylic  alcohol),  and  a  small  pro- 
portion of  creosote  (C^HgOj). 

It  is  from  this  crude  acid  that  the  acetic  acid  of  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  is  prepared  by  purification,  which  is 
effected  as  follows  :  The  crude  acid  is  saturated  with  what  is 
termed  a  cream  of  lime,  which  forms  acetate  of  lime  (CaO, 
C4H30y)  in  solution,  and  a  large  amount  of  tarry  matter  is 
precipitated.  This  solution  of  acetate  of  lime  is  then  mixed 
with  a  concentrated  solution  of  sulphate  of  soda   (NaS04), 


THE  a:mericax  dyer.  .     235 

and,  by  double  decomposition,  acetate  of  soda  is  formed  in 
solution,  and  sulphate  of  lime  (CaO,SOa)  is  precipitated. 
The  solution  of  acetate  of  soda  is  next  sul)jected  to  evapora- 
tion. During  this  evaporation  the  impurities  that  separate 
on  the  surface  are  skimmed  off.  The  solution,  lacing  prop- 
erly concentrated,  is  set  aside  to  crj'stallize,  and  the  impure 
salt  thus  obtained,  after  being  partially  purified  by  solution 
and  re-crystallization,  is  fused  in  an  iron  vessel,  stirred  until 
it  dries  and,  the  heat  is  carefully  raised  and  subjected  to 
incipient  carl)onization,  whereby  the  remaining  empyreumatic 
matters  are  carbonized  with  little  if  any  damage  to  the  crys- 
tals. The  mass  is  then  all  dissolved  in  water,  and  the  solu- 
tion, being  strained  and  re-crystallized,  is  pure  acetate  of 
soda ;  this  is  distilled  with  thirty-five  per  cent,  of  its  weight 
of  sulphuric  acid,  thus  yielding  the  acetic  acid  of  commerce, 
the  residue  being  sulphate  of  soda,  its  final  process  being 
filtration  through  animal  charcoal. 

Sometimes,  in  the  above  process,  the  acetate  of  lime  is 
directly  distilled  with  sulphuric  acid  without  being  first  con- 
verted into  acetate  of  soda,  thus  saving  one  operation  in  the 
process,  but  by  this  operation  the  acetic  acid  is  apt  to  contain 
sulphuric  acid  ;  besides,  it  is  attended  with  very  many  incon- 
veniences. The  same  operation  is  saved,  and  it  is  without 
the  risk  of  having  sulphuric  acid  in  the  acetic  by  distilling  the 
acetate  of  lime  with  hydrochoric  acid  (HCI,  muriatic  acid),  as 
is  recommended  by  Christl,  and  if  the  hydrochloric  acid  is  not 
in  excess,  the  acetic  acid  obtained  scarcely  contains  a  trace  of 
chlorine  (CI). 

M.  Richter  prefers  the  acetate  of  baryta  (BaO,C4HaOy)  to 
the  acetate  of  soda,  because  the  fusibility  of  the  soda  will 
interfere  with  the  operation,  but  adds  to  the  baryta  salt  two 
per  cent,  of  the  acetate  of  soda,  in  order,  to  some  extent,  to 
obviate  its  tendency  to  become  pulverulent. 

The  specific  gravity  of  the  different  acetic  acids  increases 
with  their  strength  up  to  the  density  of  1.0735  (maximum), 


236 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 


after  which  it*  decreases  until  it  reaches  1-.063,  which  is  the 
density  of  the  strongest  acetic  acid  (being  the  glacial  acid). 

The  following  table,  which  is  condensed  from  one  given  by 
Pereira,  on  the  authority  of  Mohr,  shows  the  specitic  gravity 
of  acetic  acid  of  different  strengths.  This  table  includes  the 
United  States  officinal  Acidum  aceticinn  dilutum.  The 
column  on  the  left  gives  the  percentage  of  monohydrated  acid 
in  each  : — 


Per  cent. 

j  Per  cent. 

of  Acid. 

Specific  gravity. 

of  Acid. 

Specific  gravity. 

100 

1.063  Acetic  acid  (glacial).* 

33 

1.044  British  acetic  acid   of 

99 

1.065  Glacial  acetic  acid.f 

commerce. 

97 

1.068 

32 

1.042  Scotch   acid    of  com- 

90 

1.073 

merce  (strongest.) 

.80 

1.0735  Maximum  density. 

31 

1.041  Acetic     acid,    United 

'70 

1.070' 

1 

States,  1850. 

60 

1.017 

30 

1.040 

69 

1.066  Strong  acetic  acid. 

25 

1.034  Pjroligneous         acid 

64 

1.063  Acid  corresponding  in 

(Edinburgh). 

sp.  gr.  to  the  strong- 

20 

1.027 

est. 

!       10 

1.015 

52 

1.062 

6 

1.008  Diluted     acetic     acid 

50 

1.060 

(British). 

40 

1.051 

5 

1.006  Diluted      acetic    acid 

39 

1.050  English  acid  of  com- 

(United States). 

merce. 

4 

1 .0055 

36 

1.047  Acetic  acid  of  United 

3 

1X)04  Diluted    acetic     acid, 

States. 

United  States,  1850. 

Up  to  the  specific  gravity  of  1.062  the  density  of  acetic  acid 
is  a  very  accurate  index  of  its  strength,  but  above  that  speci- 
fic gravity  two  acids  of  different  strengths  may  coincide  in 
density.  "We  see  by  the  table  that  an  acid  of  1.063  may  be 
either  the  strongest  possible  liquid  acid,  or  an  acid  that  con- 
tains only  fifty-four  per  cent,  of  such  acid.  This  ambiguity 
can  be  removed  by  diluting  the  acid  with  a  portion  of  wiiter, 
and,  if  the  density  is  increased,  that  acid  which  increases  in 
density  is  the  strongest  of  the  two  having  the  same  density 


This  varies  to  1.065. 


t  British. 


THE    AMERICAN    DYEK.  237 

before  the  water  was  adtlecl.  This  is  the  test  in  the  British 
Pharmacopoeia,  of  adding;  ten  per  cent,  of  water  to  their 
glacial  acetic  acid. 

The  density  of  the  Scotch  and  English  acetic  acids  of  com 
merce  is  given  upon  the  authority  of  Dr.  Christison. 


A.  T.  TURNER,  Jr., 


SE.02CEE,        13^ 


iiiia  c 


[rr 


xvii^ 


fflfeiii,  mwi 


MADDERS,    BICHROMATE    OF   POTASH,   TARTARS, 
ANNATTE,    AND  GENERAL  DYESTUFFS, 

No.   104   MILK    STREET,   BOSTON. 

ADDRESS  LETTERS  TO  P.  0.  BOX  3373. 


An  experience  of  several  years  with  manufacturers,  as  Purchasing  Broker  in  this  or  tlie 
New  York  market  when  freight  and  prices  favor,  warrants  offering  my  services  to  all  buyers, 
in  the  belief  that  as  a  Broker,  thoroughly  posted,  1  may  at  times  aid  them  to  advantageous 
purchases. 

INDIGO  and  CUTCH,  leading  specialties. 

No  orders  filfed  by  me  are  delivered  without  my  examination  of  the  goods. 

SEND   FOR  QUOTATIONS  AND  SAMPLES   BEFORE  ORDERING. 


A.   COCHRANE  &  CO., 


MANUFACTURERS    AND    IMPORTERS    OF 


CHEMICALS, 


No.    55    KILBY    STREET,    BOSTON, 


(Proprietors  of  Maiden  Chemical  Worl<s,  Maiden,  Mass.,  and  Everett  Chemical  Works,  Everett,  Mass.) 
Manufacture,  and  have  constantlj'  on  hand  in  quantities  to  suit,  their  standard 

OIL  VITRIOL,  MURIATIC  ACID,  NITRIC  ACID,  TIN  CRYSTALS,  MURIATES, 

TIN,    IRON    LIQUOR,    EXTRACT   INDIGO,    and    Dyers'  and 

Printers'  Chemicals. 


Part  Second. 


A    DESCRIPTIVE    ACC0U:N^T 

OF 

THE  PROPERTIES  AND  COMPOSITION  OF  THE  YARIOUS 

DYEWOODS  AND  SUBSTANCES  WHICH  ENTER 

INTO  THE  COMPOSITION  OF  COLORS. 


240  THE    AMEKICAX   DYEE. 


DESCEIPTION  OF  DYEWOODS,  ETC. 


ORCHIL,  OR    ARCHIL.      . 

This  article  comes  to  the  dyer  in  casks  containing  a  crim- 
son-colored liquor  and  a  large  amount  of  weed.  This  weed 
is  called  by  botanists  Lichen  roccella  and  lioccella  iincioria, 
a  species  of  moss  or  seaweed,  and  is  found  in  Sweden,  Ire- 
land, Wales,  and  the  Cape  de  Verde  Islands  ;  the  best  is  from 
the  latter  place.  It  is  found  in  commerce  in  two  forms  : 
1st,  as  a  red  pasty  matter,  having  an  alkaline  taste,  and  called 
archil;  2d,  as  a  red-violet  powder,  called  cudbear.  Some 
twelve  years  ago  there  was  two  preparations  of  archil  brought 
into  market  under  the  names  of  orchil  carmine  and  orchil 
purple ;  these  preparations  contained  the  archil  in  a  very  pure 
state.  Archil  is  chiefly  prepared  in  England  and  France  ;  the 
method  of  preparing  it  has  been  kept  a  secret,  and  at  the 
present  time  is  imperfectly  known ;  but  what  is  known  of 
the  mode  of  preparation  is  that  the  lichen  or  weed  is  first 
ground  to  a  pulp  (after  having  been  well  dried)  ;  the  pulp  is 
then  placed  in  wooden  troughs  with  close-fitting  covers  to 
them;  this  pulp  is  then  sprinkled  with  ammonia  (NH^),  lime 
(Ca)  and  urine,  which  causes  fermentation ;  it  is  stirred  up  at 
intervals  and  more  ammonia  added.  It  requires  from  six  to 
eight  days  to  develop  the  color ;  it  is  then  put  up  in  casks 
and  sent  to  market,  and  is  thus  received  by  the  dyer. 

When  it  is  two  years  old  its  coloring  principle  or  proper- 
ties are  fully  developed ;  after  that  time  it  begins  to  deterio- 
rate. Archil  gives  very  blooming  but  at  the  same  time  very 
fugitive  colors.  It  is  not  now  used  in  woolen-dyeing,  as  form- 
erly, being  superseded  by  cudbear,  but  is  still  used  in  silk- 


THE    AMEIUCAN   DYEIl.  241 

dyeing  for  such  colors   as  lilac,  lavender,  and  other  shades 
ranging  between  pink  and  purple  ;  it  is  used  to  give  a  ground 
or  bott°om  to  silk  that  is  to  be  colored  safflower-pink.     The 
silk  is  passed  through  a  weak  solution  of  archil,  so  as  to  form 
a  flesh  or  light  lavender  color ;  the  depth  is  regulated  aeccn-d- 
ing  to  the  shade  of  pink  wanted.     The  silk  is  then  passed 
through   the    safflower    solution,   to  which   has    been   added 
enougli   sulphuric   acid    (H,SO,)    to    make    it   slightly   acid. 
When  the  color  of  the  solution  has  become  exhausted,  the  silk 
is  worked  in  cold  water,  and  then  finished  by  passing  it  through 
water  made  acid   with  either  citric  acid   (CAHo)  "^  tartar 
(CH.A).     Acetic  acid  (CA^^s)  or  sulphuric  acid  should  not 
be  used  in  the  last  process.     The  coloring  principle  of  archil 
has  been  very  extensively  investigated   in  this  country  and 
Europe  by  some  of  the  best  chemists,  and  the  results  of  their 
investigations  have  been  that  the  coloring  principle  of  archil 
depend"  upon  the  oxidation  of  a  colorless  base,  or  a  certain 
compound  which  exists  in   the  plant.     This  compound  they 
termed  orcme  (QHsO,),  and  the  oxidized  color   was   called 
orce/ne  (QHjNOa),  which  constituted  the  essential  colormg 
of  the  archil.'    Since  the  discovery  of  the  tar  colors,  archil  has 
become  almost  obsolete  or  done  away  with,  for  even  silk-dye- 
ing.    Could  the  color  given  by  archil  be  tixed  permanently 
upon  wool  or  cotton,   its  value   would   be  inestimable,  the 
colors  being  very  beautiful  but  very  fugitive.     In  1857  Mr. 
Marnas  of  Lyons  discovered  a  process  to  make  a  color  from 
archil  that  was  both  beautiful  and  permaaeut,  and  called  it 
the  French  purple. 

It  was  produced  as  follows  :  "Powdered  lichens  are  macer- 
ated in  lime-water  in  order  to  render  soluble  the  coloring 
matter  which  combines  with  the  lime.  After  filtration, 
hydrochloric  acid  (HCl)  is  added,  which  saturates  the  lime 
and  causes  the  coloring  substance  to  separate  in  a  gelatinous 
state,  which  is  washed  and  dissolved  in  hot  ammonia  (NII4). 
The  solution  is  very  slow,  as  it  requires  from  twenty  to 
twenty-five  days  and  a  temperature  of  153=  Fahr.     The  am- 

31 


242  THE    AMERICAi^^   DYEK. 

raoiiiacal  liquid,  which  has  become  vitjlet,  is  then  precipitated 
b^f  chloride  of  calcium  (CaCl),  a  purple-lake  is  then  produced 
which  is  the  French  purple." 

The  acids  will  change  this  purple  to  a  bright  red. 

The  alkalies  will  change  this  purple  to  a  blue. 

Rock  salt  will  change  this  purple  to  a  crimson  tint. 

Sal-ammoniac  will  change  this*purple  to  a  ruby-red  tint. 

Crystals  of  tin  will  change  this  purple  to  a  red  tint. 

Blue  vitriol  will  change  this  purple  to  a  cherry-red  brown. 

Copperas  will  change  this  purple  to  a  red-brown  pre- 
cipitate. 

Alum  gives  a  brownish-red  precipitate. 

These  reactions  are  nearly  the  same  on  archil  in  the  crude 
state. 


CUDBEAR. 

This  is  archil  in  a  dry,  powdered  state,  and  is'  of  a  lilac 
color.  The  color  given  by  it  is  not  so  bloomy,  yet  it  has  a 
more  jjerraaneut  nature  than  archil.  Although  the  colors  given 
by  it  are  fugitive,  still  it  is  used  considerably  in  woolen- 
dyeing  for  giving  the  logwood  blues  the  indigo  shade,  to 
bloom  up  the  dahlias. and  all  those  shades  that  require  a  pur- 
ple hue  or  tint  to  them,  such  as  mulberries,  peach-blows, 
puces,  &c.  It  is  used  with  camwood  to  bottom  up  for  indigo- 
blues,  so  as  to  economize  the  indigo  ;  it  is  also  used  for  indigo- 
purples  in  topping  off  along  with  hypernic  wood.  The  fol- 
lowing recipe  is  used  by  many  dyers  to  bottom  for  indigo- 
blue  :  For  two  hundred  pounds  of  clean  wool  boil  up  thirty 
pounds  camwood  and  fifteen  pounds  cudbear  for  one  hour, 
then  enter  the  wool  and  boil  one  hour,  draw  off  the  tub,  take 
out  the  wool  and  extract  it,  then  it  is  ready  for  the  blue-vat. 
Cudbear  has  all  the  characteristics  of  archil,  and  re-agents  have 
the  same  result  on  the  one  as  on  the  other.  Tartar  (CII2O2) 
is  the  only   mordant   that   is    of  any  use    with    cudbear ;  it 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  243 

brightens  up  the  color  mirI  eiiahlos  it  to  resist  the  fulling  and 
scouring  much  l)otter  than  it  would  if  not  used.  Aichil  and 
cudbear  colors  fade  rapidly  by  the  action  (jf  the  sun's  rays, 
and  by  light  and  heat,  turning  it  from  its  natural  color  to  a 
dull  fawn  ;  and  colors,  when  cudbear  or  archil  enter  into  their 
composition,  should  be  dried  in  the  shade  and  preserved  from 
the  ra^'s  of  the  sun.  Cudbear  should  be  mixed  with  water 
into  a  paste  before  putting  it  into  the  dye-bath,  otherwise  it 
would  tioat  on  the  surface  ;  it  requires  no  boiling  before  the 
wool  is  entered  into  the  solution. 

Litmus  is  obtained  from  the  same  weed  that  archil  and  cud- 
bear are  made  from  ;  the  oidy  ditlerence  in  the  prepaiation  of 
the  three  articles  consists  in  the  fermentation  and  oxidation 
being  carried  to  further  development,  the  result  of  which  is 
that  the  red  pigment  (orcin)  contained  in  the  sea- weed  is 
converted  into  a  l)lue-colored  material  called  azolitmine,  hav- 
ing the  followinjr  formula  :  — 


Orcin,  CJIsOa      ^  r  Azolitmine,  C7H7NO4 

Ammonia,  KH^    >  yield  \  '^'^^-l 


I 


Oxygen,  40^  C  Water,  2H2O. 

After  the  weed  has  fermented  sufficiently,  it  is  mixed  with 
chalk  and  gy[^sum,  then  made  into  small,  flat  cakes  resem- 
blinoj  lozeuijes  ;  is  then  dried  and  sent  to  market.  Litmus  is 
prepared  the  most  extensively  in  the  southern  part  of  France, 
from  the  juice- of  the  Croton  tinctorium;  this  shrub  being  sub- 
mitted to  the  action  of  the  ammonia  contained  in  the  urine 
and  stable-dung  used  to  excite  fermentation  in  the  process  of 
manufacturing  litmus,  causes  it  to  assume  the  purple-red 
color.  This  purple-red  color  is  changed  to  a  yellow-red  by 
weak  acids,  and  will  not  return  to  its  former  color  (purple- 
red  color)  by  alkalies.  Litmus  could  be  used,  and  is  some- 
times used,  as  a  coloring  material,  but  it  is  too  fugitive  to  be 
applied  in  coloring  wqolen  fabrics  ;  it  is  employed  mostly  for 
coloring   test-paper,  and  giving  a  bluish  tinge   to  whitewash  ; 


244:  THE    AMERTCAX   DYER. 

also  for  coloring  the  red  champagnes,  &c.  In  Holland  it  is 
termed  or  called  (oiirnesol  en  dra2)eaux,  and  is  used  there  for 
colorinij  the  crust  of  certain  kinds  of  cheese,  as  this  colorins: 
of  the  crust  has  an  effect  to  keep  off  the  cheese-mitos  and  the 
cheese  is  less  liable  to  decay.  Litmus  is  also  used  for  color- 
ing a  peculiar  kind  of  paper  used  for  covering  sugar-loafs. 

The  lichens  employed  for  obtaining  archil,  cudbear  and 
litmus  are  different  species  oi'  Itoccella,  Lecanora,  Variolaria, 
and  others.  These  lichens  grow  on  maritime  rocks  in  various 
parts  of  the  world,  but  for  commercial  purposes  are  chiefly 
collected  upon  the  European  and  African  coasts.  They  are 
also  obtained  from  the  islands  of  Canaries,  Azores,  Madeira, 
and  Cape  de  Verde. 

The  particular  species  employed  are  probably  Lecanora 
tariavea,  or  Tartarean  moss,  growing  in  the  north  of  Europe, 
and  lioccella  tinctoria  or  orchilla  iveed,  which  abounds  upon 
the  African  and  insular  coasts,  and  is  called  commercially,  in 
common  with  other  species  of  the  same  genus,  Angola  weed, 
Canari/  weed,  &c.,  according  to  the  name  of  the  place  from 
which  it  may  be  brought.  All  of  the  three  coloring  sub- 
stances named  above  can,  however,  be  obtained  from  either 
one  of  the  species  of  the  plant.  The  litmus-paper  of  com- 
merce is  prepared  from  one  of  the  coloring  substances  of  these 
plants  (litmus),  by  tirst  forming  a  strong,  clear  solution  of 
one  part  of  litmus  to  four  parts  of  water,  then  dipping  slips 
of  white,  unsized  paper  into  it,  or  by  applying  it  with  a  brush 
to  one  surface  of  the  paper  only ;  then  the  paper  is  carefully 
dried  and  kept  in  well-stopped  jars,  from  which  the  light  is 
excluded.  Litmus-paper  should  have  a  uniform  purplish 
color,  bearing  upon  the  blue  shade,  neither  very  light  nor 
very  dark. 

Another  method  of  preparing  litmus-paper  is  to  "  digest 
for  some  time  20  grammes  of  litmus  in  100  cubic  centimetres 
of  water,  shake  some  time,  and  then  filter.  To  the  filtered 
liquid  add  a  slight  excess  of  nitric  acid,  and  boil,  and  tben 
exactly  neutralize  with  potassa.     Now  make  a  weak  solution 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  245 

of  gelatine  by  boiling  one  part  of  ichthyocolla  in  six  parts  of 
water,  immerse  in  this  solution  some  white,  unsized  paper, 
and  afterwards  hang  it  up  to  dry,  then  color  one  side  of  it 
with  the  solution  of  litmus."  Hy  gaslight  it  is  said  that  the 
change  of  color  cannot  be  determined  by  the  eye  exactly,  as 
the  blue  of  the  litmus  becomes  a  mauve  color,  but  this  can  be 
obviated  by  watching  the  process  through  a  green  glass,  by 
which  means  the  faintest  trace  of  blue  will  become  dis- 
cernible. 


ANNOTTO. 

Annotto  is  a  shrub  which  was  originally  a  native  plant 
of  South  America,  but  is  now  cultivated  in  the  East  Indies 
and  St.  Domingo,  and  called  by  botanists  Bix  orreUana.  It 
grows  to  the  height  of  eight  or  ten  feet,  but  never  above 
twelve  feet.  The  leaves  are  divided  by  fibres  of  a  brownish- 
red  hue,  about  four  inches  long,  having  a  broad  base,  termi- 
nating in  a  sharp  point.  The  stems  are  used  by  the  natives' 
to  make  ropes  of.  The  shrub  bears  an  oblong  pod,  resembling 
a  chesnut-burr.  At  their  first  formation,  they  are  a  beautiful 
rose-color,  and  as  they  ripen,  they  become  a  dark  brown,  and 
then  burst  open,  showing  a  crimson  pulp,  which  contains 
three  or  four  seeds  similar  to  raisin-stones.  The  pod  is  then 
taken  and  stripped  of  its  husks  ;  the  seeds  are  rubbed  together 
in  water,  which  deprives  them  of  ail  impure  matters  contained 
in  the  seed  ;  the  coloring-matter  is  then  allowed  to  settle,  and 
the  su[)ernatant  liquor  is  drawn  ofi",  and  the  coloring-princi- 
ple, or  annotto,  left  to  dry,  when  it  will  change  to  a  dark- 
brown  color,  having  no  taste,  but  a  disagreeable  odor  when 
brought  into  market.  The  smell  is  not  natural  to  the  annotto, 
but  is  owing  to  the  addition  of  stale  urine,  which  is  used  to 
retain  its  moisture  and  color.  Annotto  is  used  by  the  Indians 
on  the  coast  of  the  Carribbean  Sea,  to  paint  their  bodies  before 
going  into  battle,  in  order  to  terrify  their  enemies.     They  do 


246  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

it  by  rubbing  the  seeds  in  oil,  or  some  fatty  matter,  and 
making  it  into  some  sort  of  paste  ;  then  drj'^  it  in  the  sun  for 
future  use. 

Annotto,  when  boiled,  will  give  a  syrupy  solution  of  a 
yellow  crjlor,  with  the  following  re-actions  : — 

Alkalies  will  give  a  white  precipitate  of  a  clear  orange 
color  ;  an  acid  will  change  this  to  a  redder  shade.  Muriatic 
acid  (HCl)  has  no  action  upon  it.  Nitric  acid  (HNO^)  will 
decompose  it,  and  form  several  compounds,  which  have  not 
yet  been  fully  examined.  Sulphuric  acid  (H2SO4)  and  the 
solid  annotto,  will  give  a  deep  blue  precipitate,  but  it  changes 
to  a  dirty  green,  then  to  a  dark  purple  color.  Chromic  acid 
(H.jCvOi)  gives  a  deep  orange  color.  Soda-ash  (Na^COg) 
gives  the  best  results  in  producing  an  orange  with  tjiis  aitlcle 
upon  cotton  ;  but  all  colors  produced  with  annotto  are  fugitive, 
and  although  the  acids  or  alkalies  cannot  destroy  the  color 
given  by  it,  they  will  be  constantly  changing  by  exposure  to 
light  and  air,  for  which  reason  it  is  not  so  much  used  as  for- 
merly, and  at  the  present  time  it  is  not  used  in  woolen-dyeing, 
'but  by  some  dyers  it  is  used  in  coloring  mixed  goods,  such  as 
silk  and  cotton,  silk  and  wool. 

Annotto  is  dissolved  readily  in  alkalies.  The  alkalies  most 
in  use  for  this  purpose  are  potash,  or  soda-ash,  and  for  light 
shades  some  dyers  use  soft-soap,  instead  of  pot  or  soda  ash. 
By  mixing  ammonia  (NH^)  with  annotto,  and  exposing  it  to 
the  air  previous  to  coloring  with  it,  we  obtain  a  much  richer 
color.  When  it  is  thus  mixed,  a  new  substance  is  formed, 
which  is  termed  bixeine,  and  will  not  crystallize,  but  bocoiues 
a  sort  of  pasty  matter,  and  is  greatly  improved  by  the  admix- 
ture, fiflvinor  a  more  full  and  rich  oran^fe  shade.  I  do  not 
assert  that  annotto  cannot  be  crystallized,  but  that  the  sub- 
stance termed  bixeine  is  not  crystallizable. 

It  was  considered  that  annotto  contained  two  distinct  color- 
ing-matters, but  it  has  been  shown  by  Preisser,  that  the  one 
was  the  oxide  of  the  other,  and  they  are  obtained  by  adding 
sulphate  of  lead  (PbSO^)  to  a  solution  of  annotto  ;  the  lead 


THE    AMERICAN   DYEll.  247 

will  precipitate  the  coloring-matter;  then  separate  the  lead 
from  the  precipitate  by  the  use  of  sniphnretted  hydrogen,  and 
the  substance  being  tiltered  and  evaporated,  the  coloring-mat- 
ter is  de[)osited  in  small  crystals  of  a  yellow-white  color. 
These  crystals  are  hixine;  they  will  become  a  deep  yellow  by 
exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  but  by  dissolving  them  in  water 
you  will  prevent  this  change.  These  crystals  {hixine)  have 
the  following  re-actions  :  — 

Sulphuric  acid  gives  a  yellow  that  does  uot  turn  blue  as  it 
does  with  annotto. 

Nitric  acid  gives  a  yellow  shade. 

Chromic  acid  gives  a  deep  orange  tint. 

If  ammonia  is  added  to  bixine,  with  free  contact  of  air,  it 
will  change  the  color  from  the  yellowish-white  to  a  fine  deep 
red,  like  the  annotto  from  whicli,  it  was  obtained,  and  it  is 
then  another  substance,  and  is  termed  bixeine,  Avhich  is  not 
crystallizable,  but  it  may  be  obtained  as  a  red  powder.  Sul- 
phuric acid  turns  this  powder  to  a  blue,  and  combines  with 
alkalies,  and  is  hixine  with  the  addition  of  oxygen.  Annotto 
is  adulterated  mostly  with  ochre  and  oxide  of  lead  (Pb.^0).. 
These  adulterations  may  be  detected  by  burning  a  given 
quantity  in  a  porcelain  crucible;  if  the  annotto  is  free  from 
the  above  minerals,  there  will  be  no  residuum  left,  but  if  there 
is  lead  in  it,  if  you  keep  the  crucible  at  a  red  heat,  there  will 
be  a  small  ball  of  lead  at  the  bottom  ;  and  if  ochre  is  the 
adulteration,  there  will  be  a  red  powder  left. 

Some  dj'ers,  when  using  annotto,  make  what  is  termed  a 
stock  liquor  ;  that  is,  the}'^  dissolve  a  quantity  of  it  in  a  barrel 
or  some  other  vessel,  and  keep  it  for  future  use  ;  but  this  is 
a  bad  i)ractice,  as  the  solution  will  soon  become  stale,  and, 
consequently,  loses  a  large  amount  of  its  coloring  principle, 
for  which  reason  it  is  better  when  freshly  made  up.  A  \cvy 
good  method  for  preparing  it  is  as  follows  :  To  a  barrel  of 
water  (forty-two  gallons),  add  fifteen  pounds  of  annotto,  four 
pounds  soda-ash,  three  pounds  soft-soap,  and  boil  until  all  is 
dissolved;  but  for  nice  light  shades  white  bar-soap  should  be 


24:8  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

used.  Cotton  cloth  or  yarn  put  into  this  solution  is  colored 
n  dark  orange  color,  but  we  can  vary  the  shade  from  an  orange 
to  a  cream  color,  by  just  varying  the  amount  of  the  solution. 
The  cloth  or  yarn  requires  no  preparation  or  mordant,  before 
coloring  with  the  above  solution.  This  method  is  for  cotton- 
cloth,  cotton-3'arn,  or  warp.  By  passing  the  cloth  or  yarn 
through  a  weak  solution  of  oil  of  vitriol,  or,  more  properly 
speaking,  a  sour  bath,  the  orange  color  will  assume  a  scarlet 
or  salmon  color,  according  to  the  amount  or  depth  of  orange 
color  on  the  cloth  or  yarn,  previous  to  passing  it  through 
the  acidulated  bath. 


BRAZIL-WOOD,  OR  HYPERNIC. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  this  wood,  and  the}'  are  distin- 
guished from  each  other  by  the  name  of  the  place  from  which 
they  are  obtained,  such  as  Pernambuco,  Japan,  Nicaragua,  &c. 
The  last  named  wood  is  sometimes  called  Santa  ^Martha  wood. 
They  all  give  a  good  red,  and,  in  relation  to  dyeing,  are  con- 
sidered as  onl\-  different  names  for  dyestuffs  that  produce 
similar  coloring  effect,  the  hypernic-wood  giving  a  more  blue 
tint  to  the  red  than  the  other  kinds.  The  Pernaml)Uco  con- 
tains more  coloring-matter  than  the  others,  although  the  hy- 
pernic  is  the  same  in  quality,  giving  a  rich  crimson  color  to 
the  solution,  which  the  acidulous  salts  will  change  to  an 
orange,  and  the  alkalies  to  a  purple.  The  salts  of  potash, 
soda,  and  ammonia  will  change  the  solution  to  a  rose-color, 
which  will  soon  pass  away  by  standing.  The  salts  of  tin  (or 
crystals  of  tin,  SXCl,)  will  throw  down  very  slowly  a  bright, 
red-colored  lake;  and  alum  (SO4AI0)  will  have  the  same 
effect,  onl}'  of  a  more  decided  and  clearer  red. 

All  these  kinds  of  wood  contain  a  coloring-matter  called 
hrasiline,  or  hrezilin  (formula,  €44114^^014 -j- 3  HOo),  a  color- 
less sul)stance  which  will  form  crystals,  the  watery  solution  of 
which  turns  gradualh'  to  carmine-red  by  exposure  to  air,  the 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  249 

same  change  being  almost  instantaneous,  either  hy  boiling  the 
solution,  or  by  the  action  of  alkalies.  The  world  at  large,  as 
well  as  dyers,  are  greatly  indebted  to  the  French  chenrists  for 
their  valuable  researches  into  the  coloring-matters  of  these 
as  well  as  other  dyewoods.  Chevreul  long  since  obtained 
the  coloring-matter  from  Brazil-wood  by  the  following  proc- 
ess :  Digesting  the  ground  wood  in  water  until  all  the  color- 
ing-matter is  held  in  solution,  and  then  evaporating  it  to 
dryness,  in  order  to  get  rid  of  a  little  acetic  acid  (C4O3H3) 
that  it  contains.  This  residue  is  again  dissolved  in  water. 
The  solution  is  then  agitated  with  (PbO)  litharge,  so  as  to 
deprive  it  of  any  fixed  acid  that  it  might  contain.  This  solu- 
tion is  again  evaporated  to  dryness.  The  residue  is  then 
digested  in  alcohol  (CoHi-O),  pure.  Afterwards  the  residual 
matter  is  diluted  with  (HO)  water.  Then  there  is  added  to 
this  solution  dissolved  glue,  until  all  the  tannin  which  it  con- 
tains is  thrown  down  (or  precipitated).  Filter  it  again,  and 
evaporate  to  dryness,  and  digest  the  residue  in  alcohol  again, 
which  will  leave  undissolved  any  excess  of  glue  which  might 
have  been  added.  This  last  alcoholic  solution  being  evapor- 
ated to  dryness,  leaves  hrezilin^  the  coloring-matter  of  the 
wood  in  a  state  of  purity. 

The  re-agents  act  upon  brezilin  as  follows  :  — 

Copperas  (SO^Fe)  gives  a  dark  purple,  not  changed  by 
standing. 

Nitrate  of  iron  (3NOu2Fe)  changes  it  to  a  crimson. 

Chloride  of  tin  (SNCl.,)  changes  it  to  a  very  deep  crimson. 

A  hot  solution  of  (SNCl^)  to  a  deep  red  precipitate. 

Acetate  of  copper  (IC4O3H32CU)  will  give  a  dark  purple. 

The  action  of  chromic  acid  (Il2Cr04)  is  very  remarkable  on 
the  l)rezilin.  We  find  that  they  will  decompose  each  other, 
and  produce  a  beautiful  yellowish  brown. 

The  action  of  bichromate  of  potash  (H^CroOj),  with  a  decoc- 
tion  of  Brazil-wood,  has   long  been  taken   advantage  of  in 
calico-printing,  and  I  think,  by  a  proper  modification,  it  might 
be  advantageously  applied  in  the  woolen  dye-house. 
32 


250  THE    AMEKICAX   DYER. 

These  remarks  upon  the  pure  coloring-principle  of  Brazil- 
wood (breziliu)  are  applicable  to  the  wood  in  its  rough  state. 
My  opinion  is,  that  the  pure  coloring-matter  of  these,  as  well 
as  other  dye-woods,  are  oxides  of  a  colorless  base.  Thus, 
brezilin  is  the  oxide  of  a  base  which  is  without  color,  and  its 
composition  is:  carbon,  36;  hydrogen,  14:  oxygen,  14. 
Preisser  terms,  or  calls,  the  pure  coloring-principle  of  Brazil- 
wood brezilin,  and  that  its  composition  is  :  carl)ou,  30  ;  hydro- 
gen, 14;  oxygen,  12.  B}'  comparing  the  two,  we  find  that 
one  is  converted  into  the  other  by  absorbing  two  proportions 
of  oxygen,  and  that  the  re-actions  are  allied  to  those  of  indigo 
and  logwood.      (See  articles  on  indigo  and  logwood.) 

Brezilin  is  very  soluble  in  alcohol  or  water,  but,  from  the 
hardness  of  the  wood  from  which  it  is  obtained,  the  brezilin 
cannot  be  extracted  except  b}'  hard  boiling,  and  not  then  com- 
pletely. Alcohol  is  the  onl}'  element  that  will  extract  all  the 
coloring-matter  from  this  wood,  as  well  as  from  bar  wood  and 
Sanders.  A  decoction  of  Brazil-wood  will  have  a  deep  red 
color,  but  changes  into  a  rich  yellow-red  by  standing.  Acids 
will  give  it  a  yellowish  color,  and  render  it  unfit  for  dj^eing 
purposes.  Alkalies  give  it  a  violet  color,  which  is  very  fugi- 
tive. 

The  Brazil-wood  tree,  called  by  botanists  Ccesalpinia  crista, 
is  a  native  tree  of  South  America,  and  some  authors  give  it 
the  name  of  the  country  in  which  it  is  most  abundantly  found, 
—  Brazil  (see  Southey's  History  of  Brazil,  vol.  I.).  It  grows 
mostly  in  dry  places,  and  amongst  rocks.  Its  trunk  is  large, 
crooked,  and  full  of  knots.  The  following  description  of  this 
d3"e-wood  will  be  found  in  "Bell's  Geography":  — 

"The  Brazil-wood,  known  in  Pernambuco  by  the  name  of 
j)ao  da  rainha  (Queen's-wood),  is  now  rarely  to  be  seen 
within  many  miles  of  the  coast,  owing  to  the  improvident 
manner  in  which  it  has  been  cut  down  b}'^  the  government 
agents,  without  any  regard  being  paid  to  the  size  of  the  tree, 
or  its  cultivation.  It  is  not  a  loft\'  tree.  At  a  short  distance 
from  the  ground,  numerous  branches  shoot  out,  and  extend  in 


THE    AMEltlCAX   DYER.  251 

every  diroction  in  a  stragpfling,  irregular,  and  impleasiiig  man- 
ner. Tlie  leaves  are  small,  and  not  luxuriant.  The  wood  is 
very  hard  and  heavy.  It  takes  a  high  polish  (the  same  as 
camwood),  and  sinks  in  water.  The  only  part  of  it  that  is 
valuable  as  a  dye  is  the  heart  of  the  tree  (the  bark  having  no 
coloring-principle  in  it).  The  name  of  this  wood  is  derived 
from  brasas,  a  glowing  fire  of  coal.  The  leaves  are  pointed.  It 
has  blossoms  of  a  whitish  color,  growing  in  a  pyramidal  spike 
(resembling  the  sumac-blossom).  One  species  of  the  Brazil- 
wood has  flowers,  which  are  variegated  with  red,  the  branches 
being  slender,  and  fidl  of  prickle-thorns.  The  wood  known 
b}'  the  name  of  Pernambuco  contains  the  greatest  amount  of 
coloring-matter.  It  is  of  a  yellowish  color  when  freshl}'  cut, 
but  turns  red  by  exposure  to  the  atmosphere.  That  kind 
called  Lima-wood  is  the  same  in  quality." 

The  action  of  the  metallic  salts  has  the  same  result  on  all 
these  different-named  woods,  they  being  the  same  in  nature  as 
regards  their  coloring  matters  or  principles.  For  cotton- 
thread  dyein.g  with  these  woods  (for  reds)  the  proper  mor- 
dant seems  to  be  alum  and  muriate  of  tin  (or  tin  spirits). 
But  all  the  colors  obtained  from  these  woods  are  more  or  less 
fugitive,  losing  their  brilliancy  upon  a  short  exposure  to  the 
atmosphere.  The  sun's  rays  have  a  powerful  influence  upon 
these  woods  ;  for  this  reason,  all  colors  produced  by  them 
should  be  dried  in  the  shade  or  on  a  drying-machine.  When 
colors  dyQ(\  with  these  woods  are  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays, 
they  will  in  a  short  time  have  a  blackish  tint,  and  will  pass  to 
a  brown,  and  after  awhile  fade  away  to  a  light  dun  color. 
These  changes  are  thought  to  be  caused  by  the  coloring-mat- 
ter being  decomposed  into  water  and  some  other  volatile 
substance,  leaving  a  part  of  the  carbon  free,  which  will  pro- 
duce the  black  tint.  Notwithstanding  all  this,  there  is  a  large 
consumption  of  these  woods,  more  especially  for  dyeing  fancy 
reds  on  cotton-threads. 

The  hypernic  wood  is  the  best  for  coloring  garnets,  rubies, 


252  THE    AMEBIC  AX   DYER. 

and   maroons  on   wool,  on  account   of  its  not  being  such  a 
decided  red  as  the  other  woods. 


BARWOOD. 

This  wood  is  brought  principally  from  Sierra  Leone  and  the 
equatorial  regions  of  Western  Africa.  It  is  a  hard,  resinous 
wood,  and  is  considered  by  some  chemists  to  be  the  same  as 
Sanders  or  saunders-ivood . 

This  dyewood  is  always  received  by  the  dyer  in  a  ground 
state,  as  it  would  be  almost  impossible  to  extract  its  coloring 
matters  by  boiling  in  water  if  it  was  used  in  the  chip.  The 
wood  is  a  bright  red  color,  devoid  of  savor  or  smell,  and 
imparts  l)ut  a  very  slight  color  to  the  saliva;  its  coloring-prin- 
ciples are  similar  to  camwood  and  sauders,  but  the  color 
given  by  it  is  of  a  bluer  cast  than  either  of  the  last-named 
Avoods,  and  of  a  poorer  and  more  feeble  intensity,  on  account 
of  the  coloring-matters  being  more  widely  separated  from 
each  other  on  the  colored  fabric  than  those  colored  by  cam- 
wood or  Sanders ;  yet  it  yields  a  coloring-matter  th.it  is  per- 
manent with  or  without  a  mordant  (the  same  is  applicable  to 
the  last-named  woods),  but  the  wool  or  cloth  colored  with 
barwood  is  not  so  harsh  to  the  touch  as  if  colored  with  either 
camwood  or  sanders.  Barwood  requires  longer  boiling  than 
other  woods  to  bring  into  solution  all  its  coloring-principles, 
with  the  exception  of  camwood  and  sanders,  the  latter  being 
harder  and  more  resinous  than  barwood.  Alkalies,  astrin- 
gents and  alcohol,  cause  it  to  dissolve  easily  in  water.  Some 
botanists  make  a  distinction  bet^ween  barwood  and  camwood, 
but  the  two  woods  are  found  in  their  chemical  ctjmpcjsition  to 
be  the  same.  To  extract  the  whole  of  the  color  from  tifteen 
grains  of  barwood,  Preisser  found  that  it  was  necessarv  to 
treat  it  several  times  with  alcohol  at  a  boiling  heat.  The 
alcoholic  liquid  contained  0.23  of  liquid  coloring-principle  and 
0.004  of  salt. 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  2.13 

Biirwootl  contains  0.23  per  cent,  of  red  colorinij^-mattor, 
whilst  sunders  contains  1(5.75  per  cent,  according  to  Pel- 
letier.  The  alcoholic  solution  of  barwood  has  the  folloning 
re-actions  : — 

The  ti.xed  alkalies  will  turn  it  to  a  dark  crimson  or  dark 
violet.     Liuie-water  has  the  same  action  as  the  fixed  alkalies. 

Sulphuric  acid  (H^SO^)  darkens  the  color  to  a  cochineal 
red. 

Muriate  of  tin  gives  a  brick-red  precipitate. 

Tin  crystals  (SNCl.^)  give  a  blood-red  precipitate. 

Protoxide  of  iron  (FeO)  gives  a  very  abundant  violet  pre- 
cipitate. 

Cupric  sulphate  (CuSO^),  a  violet-brown  gelatinous  pre- 
cipitate. • 

Acetate  of  lead  (PbA^O^),  a  dark  violet  gelatinous  precipi- 
tate. 

Pyroxylic  acid  (C.^H^Oo)  and  alcohol  act  alike  on  barwood, 
and  the  strong  colored  solution  behaves  the  same  with  the 
same  re-agents. 

Hydrated  ether  will  dissolve  19.47  per  cent,  of  the  coloring- 
principle  of  barwood.  Ammonia,  potash,  or  soda  added  to  a 
stroui;  solution  of  barwood,  will  turn  it  to  a  dark  violet  color. 
In  coloring  wool  with  barwood,  it  must  come  in  contact  with 
the  wool  in  order  that  all  the  color  can  be  extracted  from  the 
wbod,  for  which  reason  the  wood  is  either  thrown  loose  into 
the  tub  or  kettle,  or  sprinkled  upon  the  wool  before  it  is 
thrown  into  the  dye-tub.  I  think  the  best  method  for  the  use 
of  barwood,  in  order  to  obtain  the  best  results  from  the  given 
amount  of  wood  used  is,  to  sprinkle  the  wood  upon  the  avooI 
before  entering  it,  or,  in  other  words,  you  must  mix  the  wood 
with  the  wool,  which  can  be  done  by  spreading  a  layer  of 
wool  upon  the  floor  of  the  dye-house,  in  front  of  the  tul)  in 
which  you  intend  to  make  the  color;  then  sprinkle  on  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  the  barwood  ;  then  a  layer  of  wool,  and  so  on 
alteruMtoly  until  you  have  given  or  used  the  amount  of  wood 
required  for  the  color  you  are  making.     It  will  not  do  to  put 


254  THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 

the  harwood  in  bags  to  boil  out,  as  it  will  become  solid  or 
compact,  and  it  will  be  impossible  to  extract  all  the  coloring- 
matter  from  the  wood,  as  the  boiling  water  has  no  chance  to 
saturate  it  and  dissolve  the  colorinjj-matter.  The  coloriuff- 
matter  of  barwood,  while  at  the  boiling  point,  combines  easily 
with  wool  or  cotton  that  has  previously  been  mog^lanted,  the 
mordant  taking  up  the  coloring-matter  of  the  barwood  that  is 
at  that  time  in  solution,  and  the  water,  thus  exhausted  of  its 
color,  will  dissolve'another  proportion  of  the  cohjiing-matter 
of  the  wood,  which  is  again  taken  up  by  the  wool  or  cotton, 
and  so  on  until  the  mordant  upon  the  material  has  l)ecome 
completely  saturated  with  the  color,  and  it  is  now  at  its  bright- 
est and  richest  color. 

The  above  remarks  are  equally  appli(fable  to  camwood  and 
Sanders.  Barwood  is  not  used  for  compound  colors  on  cot- 
ton with  the  other  red  woods,  but  in  woolen-dyeing  it  is. 
The  coloring-matter  of  barwood  has  not  been  obtained  in  a 
crystallized  state,  but  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  crystals  can 
be  obtained  from  it  by  a  careful  management  of  experiments 
made  with  that  object  in  view,  and  I  feel  warranted  to  assert 
that  the  pure  coloring-principle,  or,  in  other  words,  the  matter 
which  creates  a  color,  when  united  to  a  metallic  or  earthy 
salt,  is  an  undefined  crystalline  body,  and  that  it  is  this  crys- 
talline substance  only  that  we  require,  in  dyeing,  to  produce 
the  most  brilliant  hues  (the  aniline  dyes  corrol)orate  this 
assertion)  ;  and  whenever  that  period  in  futurity  arrives  when 
the  dyer  can  obtain,  in  a  crystalline  torm,  the  coloring-mat- 
ters of  the  rough  dyestufis  which  yield  the  pure  reds,  yellows, 
and  blues,  then  all  will  be  accomplished  that  the  art  of  dye- 
ing requires  in  this  respect,  because  from  these  three  coloring- 
matters  every  other  shade  or  color  in  dvein":  can  be  obtained 
by  proper  treatment  and  manipulation.  Alcohol,  alkalies, 
and  matters  or  substances  that  contain  tannin  or  the  astrin- 
gent principle,  such  as  sumac,  nutgalls,  c'cc,  all  aid  or  facili- 
tate the  extraction  of  the  coloring-matter  from  barwood, 
camwood,   and  sauders.      I  will    here  caution    the    dyer   in 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  255 

regard  to  the  too  careless  practice  of  not  washing  out  the  tuba 
or  kettles  after  coloring  in  them  such  colors  as  reciuire  sacl- 
clening,  for  if  the  tub  is  not  thoroughly  w^ished  out  from  this 
previous  coloring,  and  you  are  going  to  use  barwood,  cam- 
wood, or  Sanders  for  your  next  color  in  the  same  tub,  there 
"will  be  more  or  less  of  the  metallic  salt  left  in  the  tub,  which 
will  prevent  the  woods  from  giving  out  or  yielding  up  their 
coloring  properties  to  water.  Barwood  is  used  with  fustic, 
camwood,  and  madder,  in  woolen-dyeing  for  browns,  brown 
olives,  <fcc. 


,  CAMWOOD. 
This  is  another  species  of  the  red  woods,  and  grows  in 
Sierra  Leone  and  those  countries  adjacent  to  the  Bight  of 
Benin,  and  has  chemical  pr()i)erties  and  nature  very  similar  to 
barwood  and  sanders,  and  is  called  b}^  botanists  hois  roiujey 
santal  rouge.  It  contains  more  coloring-matter  or  principle 
than  sanders  or  barwood,  and  is  a  more  permanent  color.  It 
comes  to  the  dyer  in  a  groimd  state,  the  same  as  barwood 
and  sanders.  The  precipitates  from  a  solution  of  this  wood 
are  of  a  more  yellow  cast,  which  explains  why  the  colors 
dyed  with  it  are  so  much  more  intense  and  rich  than  colors 
produced  by  the  other  red  woods,  on  account  of  its  color 
being  more  of  a  decided  red.  It  is  more  extensively  used  in 
woolen-dyeing  than  either  of  the  other  red  woods,  for  the 
reasons  given  above,  and  is  similar  to  barwood.  It  will  give 
a  permanent  color  with  or  without  a  mordant.  Camwood 
gives  out  its  color  with  great  reluctance,  but  by  taking  one- 
half  ounce  of  soda-ash  (Na.^CO;;)  for  every  twelve  pounds  of 
camwood  used,  and  adding  it  to  the  Uoiling  solution  just  before 
the  wool  is  thrown  into  the  tub,  it  will  make  a  great  ditferencp 
in  the  quantity  of  color  obtained,  and  the  wool  will  n(»t  feel 
so  harsh  (the  same  may  be  said  in  regard  to  barwood),  and 
will  card  more  open  than  if  the  soda-ash  had  not  been  used. 


256  THE   A3IERICAX   DYER. 

Camwood  naturally  gives  a  harsh  feeling  to  wool,  but  not  so 
much  as  sauders.     Re-agents  give  the  following  results  :  — 

Copperas  (SOiFe)  gives  a  plum  color. 

Muriate  of  tin  gives  a  bright  crimson-red  color. 

Blue  vitriol  (CUSO4)  gives  a  handsome-looking  claret. 

Alum  (SO4AI.2)  gives  the  solution  a  beautiful  red  color. 

Acetate  of  copper  (verdigris)  gives  a  light  reddish-bro\vii. 

Nitrate  of  iron  (3NO^;2Fe)  gives  a  reddish-brown. 

None  of  the  salts  of  lime  seem  to  produce  desirable  results 
upon  it  as  a  mordant.  Blue  vitriol  gives  the  best  results  or 
effects  upon  the  color  of  this  wood,  and  appears  to  be  the 
most  effectual  mordant  for  it,  especially  if  using  it  for  browns. 


CATECHU  — SOMETIMES  CALLED  CUTCH. 

This  is  a  dry  extract,  prepared  from  a  sensitive  plant  called 
Terra  Jcqwiiica,  and  contains  a  large  amount  of  tannin  or 
astringent  principle.  It  grows  in  the  mountainous  districts 
of  .Hindostan.  It  grows  to  about  twelve  feet  in  height. 
The  trunk  is  about  one  foot  in  diameter,  and  covered  with  a 
thick,  dark-brown  bark.  The  extract  is  obtained  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner :  The  plant  is  cut  down  and  all  the  exterior 
white  wood  cut  into  chips ;  these  chips  are  put  into  unglazed 
pots,  and  enough  water  added  to  cover  them  ;  heat  is  then 
applied,  and  when  half  the  water  is  evaporated  the  decoction 
is  poured  into  a  shallow  earthen  vessel  and  reduced  two-thirds 
by  boiling ;  it  is  then  set  away  to  cool  for  one  or  two  days, 
then  afterwards  evaporated  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  it  being 
stirred  occasionall}'  during  that  process.  After  it  is  reduced 
to  a  certain  thickness  it  is*spread  upon  mats  that  are  sprinkled 
with  the  ashes  of  cow-duns:.  Strin^js  are  laid  so  as  to  divide 
this  mass  into  quadrangular  pieces ;  it  is  then  completely 
dried  in  the  sun,  aftur  which  it  is  ready  for  the  market. 
There  is  a  catechu  brought  to  this  country  from  India,  which 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  257 

is  in  small,  cubical-shaped  masses,  about  one  inch  in  size,  but 
it  is  of  inferior  quality,  and  is  easily  known  from  the  genuine. 
Sometimes  means  are  employed  to  alter  this  inferior  article, 
and  cause  it  to  be  more  difficult  to  detect.  It  contains  a 
larsfe  amount  of  roasted  starch,  or  dextrine.  Good  catechu 
is  of  a  dark-brown  color,  or  what  is  called  a  chocolate  color, 
and  has  an  astringent  taste,  with  no  odor  or  smell,  and  will 
all  dissolve  in  water,  and  the  solution  is  a  yellowish-brown  in 
color.     Good  catechu  will  contain  about 

50  per  cent,  of  Tannin, 

8        ♦'         of  Gum, 
35        '*         of  Extractive  matter, 

7        '*         of  Impurities  in  100  parts. 

There  are  different  qualities  of  catechu  in  the  market.  We 
will  mention  but  three  of  them — the  Bombay,  Bengal,  and 
Malabar.  The  Bombay  is  found,  or  comes  to  the  dyer,  in 
square  masses,  of  a  reddish-brown  color,  and  if  broken  will 
exhibit  an  unbroken  texture.  Its  composition  will  be  found 
as  the  above,  nearly.  This  catechu  (the  Bombay)  is  said  to 
be  the  best  kind.  The  term  extractive  is  an  indefinite  ex- 
pression, and  is  designated  as  a  brown  matter  that  can  be 
extracted  from  all  vegetables  by  boiling,  but  its  true  nature  is 
as  yet  comparatively  unknown  ;  yet  the  part  it  may  have  iu 
the  re-actions  of  catechu  is  perhaps  important,  and  is  not  to 
be  lost  sight  of  iu  the  use  of  this  drug.  Bengal  catechu  is 
found  to  be  in  flattish,  round  lumps,  and  its  outside  appear- 
ance is  of  a  light-brown  color ;  the  inside  is  a  very  dark- 
brown  color.     Its  composition  is  :  ^ 

48.9  per  cent,  of  Tannin, 

37.0        "         of  Extractive  matter, 

7.5        "         of  Gum, 

Q.6        "         of  Impurities  in  100  parts. 

33 


258  THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 

This  catechu  is  extracted  from  the  nuts  of  the  Areca  cate- 
chu plant.  The  Mahibar  catechu  we  will  find  in  large  masses  ; 
that  is,  it  comes  into  the  market  in  a  solid  mass,  with  a  cov- 
erins:  of  leaves,  and  often  there  are  leaves  intermixed,  or  in 
layers  throughout  the  whole  sack,  and  comes  in  about  one 
hundred  pounds  to  the  sack.  The  color  of  this  catechu  is  a 
light  brown  upon  the  outside,  but  very  dark  inside. 

These  diflerent  catechus  contain  from  thirty  to  fifty  per 
cent,  of  tanning  principle,  or,  we  might  say,  tannic  acid,  or 
catechu  tannic  acid  (formula,  C^jHi^Oy)  ;  also  a  peculiar  acid 
called  catechutic  acid  (CijjHi^Oe),  but  the  last-named  acid  is 
of  but  little  use,  either  in  dyeing  or  for  tanning  purposes. 

Sometimes  dealers  will  place  or  put  into  the  market  an 
inferior  article  of  Malabar  catechu  (called  kino)  as  the  real 
Malabar,  but  it  can  be  known  by  its  being  greatly  broken  up, 
and  a  large  amount  of  fine-powdered  adulterations  of  a  brown- 
red  color.  It  is  soluble  in  hot  water,  the  same  as  other  cate- 
chus ;  but  the  solution  will  be  of  a  more  blood-red  color,  and 
will  have  more  of  an  astringent  and  sweet  taste  than  any  other 
varieties  of  catechu.  It  contains  but  thirty  per  cent,  of  tan- 
nic acid  (CijHiiOe). 

Kino  is  used  mostly  for  what  is  termed  quick  tanning,  in 
the  process  of  manufacturing  leather  from  the  raw  hides. 
This  kino,  or  variety  of  catechu,  is  extracted  from  various 
plants,  such  as  Butea  frondosa,  cocolaba  uviferai  Pteroccuyus 
marsupium,  and  other  plants. 

Its  composition  is  : 

Tannin, .....  45.3 

Extractive  matter,  .  .         .  39.5 

Gum, 8.5 

Impurities,     ....  6.7  =.  100. 

Catechu  is  adulterated  by  numerous  vegetable  extracts,  and 

•with   sand,  clay,  and   ochre.     The   last-named   adulterations 

can  be  easily  detected  by  dissolving  some  of  the  catechu  in 


THE    AMERICAN    DYEIl.  259 

water,  and  these  impurities  will  settle,  as  good  catechu  is  all 
soluble  in  water,  and  gives  a  clear  solution  of  a  yellowish- 
brown  color,  which  the  acids  will  brighten  and  alkalies 
darken,  and  the  shade  will  deepen  by  standing.  Some  cate- 
chus have  been  found  to  contain  from  eight  to  ten  per  cent, 
of  clay  and  sand  mixed  with  them. 

The  tannin  in  catechu  is  not  so  easily  converted  by  expos- 
ure to  the  atmosphere  into  gallic  acid,  as  nutgalls  are,  but  it 
is  subject  to  oxidation. 

In  coloring  cotton-yarn  .vith  catechu,  the  threuds  will  ad- 
here to  each  other  when  dry  ;  but  by  giving  the  solution  a 
small  quantity  of  sulphate  of  copper,  this  gummy  su])stance 
is  precipitated,  because  the  copper  salt  will  oxidize  a  portion 
of  the  catechu.  Although  this  gummy  substance  is  insoluble 
in  water,  yet  it  is  soluble  in  the  deoxidized  catechu  ;  therefore 
the  whole  must  be  held  in  solution  in  the  bath. 

The  yarn  now  being  passed  through  this  solution,  will  come 
out  of  a  yellowish-brown  color,  and  does  not  stick  together, 
which  is  not  the  case  if  the  copper  salt  had  not  been  used. 
Now  pass  the  yarn  through  a  solution  of  chrome,  and  we 
obtain  a  deep,  rich  brown.  Whether  the  bichromate  of  pot- 
ash (ICCr.P;)  acts  as  a  base  on  any  part  of  the  catechu,  or 
the  yarn,  we  are  not  prepared  to  say  ;  but  on  burning  cotton- 
yarn  dyed  brown  by  this  process,  you  will  obtain  in  the 
ashes  of  the  cotton  the  oxides  of  both  the  copper  and  chrome, 
proving  that  both  the  chrome  and  copper  used  must  have 
an  active  part  in  the  formation  of  the  color ;  and  it  also 
proves  that  the  dye  is  something  more  than  the  mere  oxida- 
tion of  catechu.  When  catechu  is  oxidized,  there  is  a  forma- 
tion of  an  acid  nearly  like  that  of  gallic  acid  ;  but  this  acid  is 
only  formed  when  a  solution  of  catechu  is  treated  with  an 
alkaline  substance.  This  drug  is  now  used  in  almost  all  the 
compound  colors  on  raw  cotton  and  cotton-yarn,  such  as 
blacks,  browns,  drabs,  fowns,  and  greens,  and  its  permanency 
is  the  reason  why  it  is  esteemed  so  highly  in  the  coloring  of 
raw  cotton  at  the  present  time.     iMr.  Cooper  made  an  analysis 


260 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 


of  a  sample  of  catechu,  giving  a  wider  range  of  the  matters 
contained  in  it,  and  which  will  serve  to  give  a  better  idea  of 
the  various  kinds  of  this  substance,  for,  from  the  different 
methods  of  preparation,  probably  there  are  no  two  samples 
that  will  give  the  same  proportions.  The  following  is  the 
result  of  his  analysis  : 


Tannin,     .... 

Extractive  or  coloring  matter, 

Kesinous  matter, 

Gummy  matter. 

Insoluble  matter, 

Water,      .... 


62.8 
8.2 
2.0 
8.5 
4.4 

12.3 

98.2 


COCHINEAL. 

This  coloring  material  is  a  small  insect,  called  Coccus  cacti, 
found  on  small  species  of  the  cactus  plant,  but  more  especially 
upon  the  napal  plant  and  Cactus  opuntia.  This  insect,  as  well 
as  the  plant  on  which  it  feeds,  is  cultivated  in  Mexico,  Java, 
Algeria,  Central  America,  &c.  It  is  a  native  of  Cuba,  St. 
Domingo,  and  other  "West  India  islands. 

At  one  time  the  German  chemists  stated  that  the  plant 
upon  which  the  insects  feed  was  the  source  from  which  the 
coloring-matter  was  obtained :  but  experiments  made  with 
that  object  in  view,  go  to  show  that  the  animal  economy  plays 
a  very  prominent  part  in  the  formation  of  the  coloring- 
matter. 

The  male  insect  is  of  no  value  as  a  coloring  material, 
and  he  is  winged,  while  the  female  is  wingless.  The 
female  insects  are  collected  twice  a  year,  immediately  after 
they  have  been  fecundated  and  have  laid  eggs  for  the  repro- 
duction of  young.     They  are  then  collected  by  shaking  them 


THE   AMERICAK   DYER.  261 

from  the  plant  on  cotton  sheets,  and  arc  |<illcd  cither  by 
steam  or  by  the  heat  of  an  oven,  but  usually  by  the  lust 
method.  Two  varieties  are  known  in  the  trade,  the  black 
and  the  silver-colored  cochineal.  Another  kind  is  called  the 
wild  cochineal,  on  account  of  their  being  collected  from  plants 
o-rowing  wild  or  in  a  state  of  nature,  but  this  kind  is  inferior 
to  the  other  varieties.  Cochineal  appears  as  small,  deep 
brown-red  grains,  on  the  flattened  side  of  which  the  structure 
of  the  insect  is  somewhat  discernible.  Sometimes  the  dried 
insect  is  covered  with  a  white  dust  (called  powdered  talc), 
which  is  caused  by  the  dealers  dusting  the  cochineal  with 
either  talc  or  chalk,  in  order  to  deceive  the  purchaser ;  this  is 
only  done  with  the  poorer  kinds  of  cochineal.  There  have 
been  many  investigations  upon  cochineal,  but  the  results  have 
not  been  very  satisfactory.  These  are  some  of  the  instances. 
Cochineal  contains  :  — 

1.  Carmine,  which  may  be  termed  the  coloring- matter. 

2.  A  peculiar  animal  matter. 

3.  A  fatty  matter,  composed  of  stearine,  bleine,  and 
volatile  fatty  acids. 

4.  Saline  matters,  as  phosphate  of  lime,  carbonate  of  lime, 
chloride  of  potassium,  phosphate  of  potash,  a  combination  of 
potash  with  organic  acids. 

Dr.  John  gives  as  his  analysis  the  following  results  :  — 

Red  coloring-matter,          .         •          •  50.0 

Gelatine, ^'^'^ 

Wax, 10-0 

Debris  of  skin,  &c.,           .         •         •  ^^-^ 

Gummy  matter,         ....  13.0 
Phosphate  of  lime,  of  potash,  and  iron, 

chloride  of  potassium,          .          •  2.5 

Its  constituents  are,   according   to   Dr.    Ure's    "Table   of 
organic  analysis"  :  — 


262  THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 

Ciirbon,  .  .  .  .  50.75 

Hydrogen,  .         .         .  .  5.81 

Oxygen,  ....  36.53  • 

Azote,  .         .         .  .  6.91=100 

Cochineal  contains  a  peculiar  kind  of  acid,  called  carminic 
acid  (Ci7H,80io+3  HgO).  Diluted  sulphuric  acid  will  split  up 
this  acid  into  carmine-red  (carmine),  and  into  dextrose,  and 
as  this  acid  contains  carmine  and  dextrose,  which  is  present 
in  the  insect,  the  re-action  is  thus  expressed  :  — 

CnH,30io+3  H,0  =  QAA+CeHjA 

Carniiiiic  Caiuiine-        Dextrose, 

acid.  red. 

There  is  another  adulteration  of  cochineal  besides  the  dust- 
ing of  it  with  talc  and  chalk,  which  consists  in  extracting 
some  of  the  coloring-matter  from  it  by  boiling  in  water  and 
then  soaking  it  again  in  a  concentrated  solution  of  Brazil-wood 
or  logwood  ;  then  it  is  dried  and  dusted  again  with  talc,  as 
before.  This  can  be  detected  by  boiling  a  small  quantity  of 
the  suspected  cochineal,  then  adding  a  little  lime-water  to  the 
solution,  which  will  precipitate  all  the  coloring-matter  of 
cochineal  and  will  leave  the  solution  clear,  but  if  Brazil-wood 
or  logwood  is  present  in  it  the  solution  will  be  a  purplish  red 
after  the  lime-water  is  added. 

*'  In  making  choice  of'cochineal,  see  that  each  grain  exhibits 
a  bright,  free,  clear,  bold,  large  appearance ;  that  the  whole 
mass  is  free  from  dust  or  small  abraded  parts  of  the  insect 
or  other  matters  foreign  to  its  nature,  and  that  a  quantity  of 
it,  when  poised  in  the  hand,  has  a  certain  weight,  feel,  or 
specific  gravity,  which  any  person  that  is  much  accustomed 
to,  can  distinguish  with  the  greatest  nicety." 

"Cochineal  contains  50  per  cent,  of  a  pure  crytallizable 
coloring-principle,  which  is  easily  given  out  to  boiling  water, 
forming  a  well  saturated  solution  of  a  deep  crimson  or  claret 


THE    AMERICAX   DYER.  263 

color."     A  strong  solution  of  it  exhibits  the  following  results 
with  re-agents :  — 

Copperas  throws  down  a  plum-colored  precipitate. 

Blue  vitriol  —  a  red  precipitate;  a  portion  of  the  colors 
remain  in  the  solution. 

Nitrate  of  copper  —  a  brighter  color  of  the  same  charac- 
ter, the  solution  not  so  much  colored. 

Nitrate  of  mercury  —  a  brown  chocolate  sediment,  and  solu- 
tion lilac-colored. 

Nitrate  of  lead  —  a  heavy  purple  precipitate,  and  solution 
nearly  colorless. 

Nitrate  and  sulphate  of  zinc  —  results  very  similar  to  the 
lead. 

Nitrate  of  silver  —  a  dull,  bluish-black  precipitate. 

Nitrate  of  lime  —  a  scanty  precipitate,  the  solution  blued  up 
to  a  violet  or  deep  lilac. 

Sulphate  of  magnesia  —  no  precipitate,  the  color  of  the 
solution  unaflected. 

Oxalic  acid  turns  the  solution  to  an  orange  color  and  a 
scanty  precipitate  of  an  aurora  color. 

Citric  acid —  similar  effects,  only  of  a  redder  hue. 

Tartar  brightens  up  the  solution,  causing  it  to  assume  a 
fine  scarlet  color,  and  after  some  time  a  light-red  precipitate 
falls. 

Super-oxalate  of  potash  produces  more  decided  effects  of 
the  same  character  as  tartar.  « 

"  Alum  gives  the  solution  a  fine  crimson  appearance,  and  a 
moderate  precipitate  of  the  same  color  takes  place,  the  solu- 
tion still  retaining  considerable  coloring-matter,  which  a  solu- 
tion of  nitro-muriate  of  tin  will  precipitate  to  a  more  decided 
scarlet,  leaving  the  residuary  solution  of  a  pale  fawn  color." 

"All  the  alkalies  cause  the  claret-colored  solution  of  cochi- 
neal to  pass  to  a  deep  violet,  with  scarcely  any,  or  very  small 
precipitation,  and  even  several  ueutral  alkaline  salts,  such  as 


264  THE    AMERICA2«^   DYER. 

muriate  of  soda,  &c.  (common  salt),  have  similar  but  feebler 
effects.  Other  acids,  not  named  above,  act  in  a  similar  man- 
ner, with  some  variations,  differing  but  little  in  their  mean 
results  from  oxalic  and  citric  acids." 

From  these  results  and  observations,  we  may  infer — 

"First.  That  tartar  is  useful,  by  causing  cochineal  to  give 
out  its  coloring-principle  more  completely  to  water,  and  that 
it  turns  its  natural  color  more  towards  scarlet,  and  the  larger 
the  amount  of  tartar,  the  more  this  color  tends  towards 
aurora." 

"Second.  Therefore  a  definite  quantity  of  this  acidulous 
salt  is  necessary  in  dyeing  scarlet  and  its  diiferent  shades,  not 
only  to  give  the  peculiar  tone  of  scarlet  to  the  color,  but  also 
to  create  a  greater  quantity  of  it,  by  aiding  the  cochineal  to 
produce  a  more  abundant  precipitate  of  color  than  it  other- 
wise would  ;  but,  again,  the  quantity  of  tartar  must  not  exceed 
a  certain  proportion,  because,  as  the  roseate  hue  of  the  scar- 
let is  more  and  more  changed  towards  aurora,  the  greater  the 
excess  of  tartar  over  the  just  proportion." 

"  Third.  As  our  scarlet  color  may  be  considered  a  compound 
of  a  pure  red  or  carmine,  and  a  small  proportion  of  yellow, 
and  although  we  could  communicate  the  necessary  yellow 
shade  to  it  by  working  the  cochineal  towards  the  aurora,  by 
using  an  excess  of  tartar,  yet  we  economize  the  consumption 
of  that  expensive  article,  and  obtain  a  more  desirable  color, 
by  producing  the  yellow  part  from  a  less  expensive  dyestuff, 
such  as  flavine,  fustic,  &c." 

"Fourth.  Tartar  is  also  necessary  in  dyeing  any  of  the 
shades  of  crimson,  from  a  pink  upwards ;  but  in  a  much  less 
proportion  than  for  the  scarlet  shades,  because  all  we  want  of 
it  in  this  case  is  merely  to  spring  the  cochineal,  and  still  pre- 
serve, as  much  as  possible,  the  bright  crimson  tint  natural  to 
it.  The  proportional  quantity  of  tartar  to  the  cochineal,  in 
these  two  cases,  is  about,  for  the  scarlet,  five  of  tartar  to  five 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  265 

of  cochineal;  and  for  the  crimson,  three  of  tartar  to  live  of 
cochineal  (these  parts  by  weight)." 

"Fifth.  That  solutions  of  tin  are  the  only  proper  mordants 
or  base  for  the  scarlet  shades,  of  which  solutions,  the  nitro- 
muriate  is  the  best;  and  that  alum,  with  an  eqjial  weight  of  a 
well  saturated  solution  of  nitro-muriate  of  tin,  is  the  best 
mordant  for  crimson  shades." 

"Sixth.  That  none  of  the  metallic  salts  used  as  mordants 
with  cochineal,  produce  any  better  colors  than  can  be  obtained 
from  less  expensive  materials  ;  so  they  are  of  no  advantage  in 
the  application  of  cochineal  as  a  dye." 

"Seventh.  And  that  all  alkalies,  alkaline  earths,  and  even 
some  neutral  alkaline  salts,  blue  up  the  cochineal  colors,  mak- 
ing the  scarlet  approach  the  crimson,  and  the  crimson  pass  to 
the  purple  shade.  The  brilliant  colors  given  by  this  sub- 
stance are  remarkably  sensitive  to  alkaline  proximity,  for  they 
will  indicate  by  their  change  of  shade,  so  small  a  quantity  of 
alkaline  presence,  as  almost  to  warrant  their  employment  as 
tests  of  alkalinity.  These  alterants  are,  therefore,  employed 
for  the  heightening,  rosing,  or  bluing  of  pinks,  roses,  crim- 
sons, &c.,  for  which  purpose  ammonia  is  generally  used,  as 
producing  the  brightest  and  most  desirable  effects." 

"  Eighth.  That  all  acids,  and  even  acidulous  salts,  cause  the 
colors  from  cochineal  to  pass  from  the  crimson  to  the  aurora 
or  orange  shade,  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  real  acid 
strength  acting  upon  them  ;  or  in  proportion  to  the  power  of 
the  particular  acid  to  communicate  to,  or  abstract  oxygen 
from,  the  cochineal  color." 

"The  oxalic,  nitric,  and  muriatic  acids  in  excess,  change  the 
color  of  scarlet  to  a  deep  yellow,  which  can  never  be  restored 
to  scarlet  again,  by  any  known  means;  notwithstanding  this, 
the  cochineal  color  bears  a  great  acid  power  before  it  is  much 
injured." 

Cochineal  yields  rose-colored  crystals,  by  treating  it  with 
alcohol  and  nitric  ether.  The  crystallization  of  cochineal  was 
34 


266  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

discovered  l)y  Pelletier  and  Caventon,  and  named  by  them 
carminmm,  and  au  account  of  it  was  first  published  by  Dr. 
Ure  in  his  notes  to  Berthollett's  Elements  of  Dyeing,  some 
fifty  years  ago.  The  true  scarlet  color  cannot  be  produced  by 
any  other  known  means,  than  by  cochineal  and  solution  of  tin. 


CARMINE. 

Carmine  is  made  by  boiling  out  the  color  from  the  cochi- 
neal, then  filtering  the  solution  ;  to  this  filtered  solution  alum 
is  added,  after  which  it  is  left  to  settle.  Another  method  is 
to  boil  the  ground  cochineal  in  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda 
(XaCOg)  ;  the  white  of  eggs  is  then  added  to  the  solution  in 
order  to  clarify  it,  and  after  this  the  solution  is  precipitated 
with  an  acid  ;  then  washed.  The  washed  precipitate  is  then 
dried  at  30°. 

When  carmine  is  prepared  in  this  manner,  it  is  finer  and 
better  than  when  otherwise  prepared,  but  the  common  carmine 
— carmine  lac  and  round  lac — is  made  by  treating  an  aluminous 
solution  of  cochineal  with  soda-ash,  and  the  greater  amount 
of  alum  contained  in  carmine  thus  made,  the  coarser  will  be 
the  quality. 

Carmine  is  extensively  prepared  in  France,  and  is  made  and 
largely  used  for  coloring  artificial  flowers,  for  making  red  inks 
and  paints,  and  it  is  the  substance  that  lines  the  pink  saucers 
for  beautifying  the  cheeks  of  ladies.  In  making  carmine,  it 
is  found  that  a  larger  amount  can  be  produced  from  the  same 
quantity  of  cochineal  when  a  wood  fire  is  employed  to  boil  the 
solutions,  than  when  coal  is  used,  and  why  this  is  so  is  not  yet 
fully  understood.  There  are  many  other  points  which  go  to 
show  how  delicate  an  operation  it  is  to  make  good  carmine. 
Light  has  a  great  efiect  in  producing,  good  carmine.  In  mak- 
ing carmine,  the  residue  which  is  left  from  the  cochineal,  is 
boiled  in  water  for  some  time ;  then  to  this  solution  they  add 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  267 

a  solution  of  muriate  of  tin  and  alum,  which  precipitates  a 
colored  lake.     This  beautiful  lake  is  termed  carmine-lake. 
Carmine  is  aftected  by  the  following  re-agents  thus  :  — 

Tannin  will  give  no  precipitate. 

Ammonia,  soda,  and  potash  change  it  to  a  crimson  violet. 

Strontia  and  baryta  produce  the  same  effect. 

Lime  gives  a  crimson-violet  precipitate. 

Most  of  the  acids  change  its  color  from  a  bright  to  a  yellow- 
ish red. 

Boracic  acid  does  not  change  the  color,  but  rather  red- 
dens it. 

Chlorine  turns  the  color  yellow. 

The  salts  of  copper  change  it  to*  a  violet,  but  leave  no 
precipitate. 

The  salts  of  iron  turn  it  brown,  but  leave  no  precipitate. 

The  salts  of  lead  change  it  to  a  violet,  but  leave  no  pre- 
cipitate. 

Peroxide  of  tin  changes  it  to  a  crimson  violet. 

Protoxide  of  tin  changes  it  to  a  yellowish  red. 

Alumina  combines  with  it,  and  precipitates  it  as  a  beautiful 
red  ;  but  if  boiled,  it  passes  to  a  violet  red. 


FUSTIC. 

This  dyestuflf  is  manufactured  from  the  dyer's  mulberry- 
tree,  botanically  termed  Moms  iinctoria,  or  Madura  auran- 
tiaca.  It  is  imported  from  Cuba,  St.  Domingo,  and  Ilayti, 
that  from  Cuba  being  the  best.  It  is  found  growing  "spon- 
taneously in  the  Brazils.  It  is  uncertain  when  it  was  first 
introduced  as  a  dye-drug,  l)ut  mention  is  made  of  it  as  early 
as  1692.  This  wood  is  the  color  of  sulphur,  with  orange- 
colored  veins,  andj  in  some  parts,  yellow-red  color.  This  is 
due  to  a  colorless  and  crystallized  body  termed  morine 
(CioHgOj)  i)resent,  in  combination  Avith  lime,  and  also  to  a 
very  peculiar  kind  of  tannic  acid,  termed  maclurine  (having 


268  THE    AMERICAN   DTEE. 

for  its  formula,  CiaHioOg),  which  we  find  deposited  in  the 
wood  in  large  quantities,  which  becomes  yellow  by  being 
exposed  to  the  air,  and  in  contact  with  alkalies.  This  wood 
has  been  long  employed  for  coloring  yellows  and  greens  ; 
but,  for  these  colors,  it  is  almost  superseded  by  flavine  and 
quercitron-bark,  especially  on  cotton-yarus,  light  cotton 
fabrics,  such  as  muslins,  &c. 

A  solution  of  fustic  should  be  used  imraedi^tel}^  after  being 
boiled  from  the  wood,  as,  after  it  begins  to  cool,  the  coloring- 
matter  begins  to  precipitate ;  and  if  allowed  to  stand  for 
twelve  hours,  it  is  unfit  for  use,  as  the  morine,  or  coloring- 
principle,  will  crystallize,  and  settle  at  the  bottom  of  the  d3'e- 
tub,  and  will  not  completely  dissolve  again  in  its  own  solu- 
tion, and  loses  its  coloring  properties,  which  ever}'  practical 
dyer  must  have  observed.  Fustic  requires  more  boiling  than 
logwood  or  hypernic,  but  not  so  much  as  camwood,  barwood, 
or  Sanders.  Fustic  is  almost  an  indispensable  material  in 
woolen-dyeing,  as  it  is  used  in  almost  all  those  colors  where  a 
yellow  enters  into  their  composition ;  and  it  being  cheap,  and 
giving  durable  colors  either  with  or  without  mordants,  we 
cannot  verv  well  find  a  substitute  for  it.  Its  greatest  con- 
sumption is  in  making  the  compound  colors,  such  as  browns, 
olives,  drabs,  greens,  &c. 

A  decoction  of  fustic  will  give,  with  the  following  re-agents, 
these  results  :  — 

Alkalies  give  an  orange  color,  with  a  green  tint. 

Muriate  of  tin  gives  a  rich  j'cllow. 

Nitro-muriate  of  tin  (yellow  spirits)  gives  a  reddish  yellow. 

Potash  sulphate  of  alumina  (alum)  gives  a  canar\^-yellow. 

The  proto  and  per  salts  of  iron  (copperas  and  iron  liquor) 
give  a  greenish-olive  tint,  which  darkens  by  standing. 

Cupric  sulphate  (blue  vitriol)  gives  a  green  olive. 

Nitric  acid  gives  a  red  precipitate. 

Sulphuric  acid  gives  a  red  precipitate  after  standing  for  a 
short  time. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYEK.  269 


Recipe  for  Yellow  with  Fustic. 
375  lbs.  wool  (coarse)  in  the  grease,  or  187  lbs.  clean  : 
15  lbs.  Alum, 
7  lbs.  Red  Tartar, 
5  lbs.  Muriate  of  Tin, 
70  lbs.  Chip  Fustic. 
Boil  out  the  fustic  for  one  and  a  half  hours.     Then  take  out 
the  bags  containing  the  fustic,  and  add  to  the  solution  the  alum, 
tartar,'' and  tin-liquor.     Stir  up  the  whole.     Then  enter  the 
wool ;  pole  up  well,  and  boil  for  one  hour.     It  is  immaterial 
whether  you  wash  off  the  wool  from  the  color  or  not.  ^   This 
recipe  gives  a  very  permanent  color,  and  is  used  for  listings 
and  mixtures.     A  deeper  color  is  produced  as  follows  :  — 

200  lbs.  coarse  wool  in  the  grease,  or  125  lbs.  clean  : 
60  lbs.      Chip  Fustic, 
6  lbs.      Red  Tartar, 
12  lbs.       Alum, 
2  quarts  Muriate  of  Tin. 
Proceed  as  above  in  all  particulars. 


YOUNG  FUSTIC,  OR  FRENCH  FUSTET. 
This  is  a  green-yellow  wood,  exhibiting  brown-colored 
stripes  through  it,  and  is  obtained  from  a  European  shrub.  Its 
botanical  name  is  Rhus  cotinus,  a  plant  growing  in  the  south- 
ern parts  of  Europe,  principally  in  Italy  and  Southern  France, 
and  was  long  used  in  France,  and  called  fustet,  for  giving  a 
yellow  dye.  The  prefix  "young"  was  given  to  it  on  account 
of  the  smallness  of  its  branches  in  comparison  to  the  yellow 
wood,  designated  as  old  fustic.  The  fustet  contains  a  peculiar 
coloring-matter,  termed  fustine,  and,  by  some  chemists, /««- 
teric,  and  a  large  quantity  of  tanhic  acid.  It  also  appears 
that  it  contains  a  coloring-matter  not  unlike  quercitron-bark. 


270  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

This  wood  gives  the  following  results  with  re-agents  :  — 

Acetate  of  lead  gives  a  yellowish-white. 
Iron  salts  (copperas)  give  an  olive-green  color. 
Nitro-nuiriate,  and  muriate  of  tin,  give  an  orange-yellow 
precipitate. 

Alkaline  solutions  change  the  color  of  the  solution  to  red. 

The  coloring-matter  of  young  fustic  has  a  very  strong 
attraction  for  ox3gen,  which  affects  its  use  as  a  dye  when 
durability  is  required.  I  have  not  seen  any  of  it  in  this 
country  for  the  last  twenty-five  years,  and  do  not  think  it  is 
in  the  market.  It  was  used  at  that  time  as  an  assistant  to  strike 
some  particular  shade  or  tint.  It  was  used,  along  with  quer- 
citron-bark, to  give  the  sulphur,  or  greenish  tint,  to  sulphur 
yellows.     I  never  knew  it  to  be  used  in  cotton-dyeing. 


FLA  VINE. 

This  is  a  colorinsr-matter  that  has  not  been  used  in  the 
■woolen  dye-house  until  within  the  last  twenty  years.  It  is 
made  from  quercitron-bark,  which  is  the  inner  bark  of  the 
black  oak,  called  Quercus  nigra,  and,  by  some  botanists,  Quer- 
cus  tincloria.  The  manner  of  manufacturing  flavine  is  first 
to  grind  the  quercitron-bark  into  a  very  fine  powder  ;  it  is 
then  called  quercitrine  (C33H3oOJ^7)  ;  the  color  of  it  is  a  bright- 
yellow,  and  it  contains  tannic  acid,  with  the  addition  of  a  yel- 
low pigment.  This  powdered  bark  then  goes  through  a 
process  of  exhaustion  Avith  soda,  and  afterwards  is  precipitated 
by  diluted  acids,  or  is  made  a  garancine  by  precipitating  it 
with  oil  of  vitriol ;  it  is  then  dried  and  is  ready  for  the 
market  or  the  dyer's  use.*  Flavine  is  the  chief  yellow  dye, 
used  along  with  picric  acid,  for  yellows  at  the  present  time; 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  271 

that  is,  where  fastness  is  not  requiretl.     Picric  acid  has  for  its 
formuhi  — 

Fiavine  is  now  used  in  dye-houses  in  place  of  quercitron- 
bark,  it  being  far  superior  to  the  bark  both  in  the  iimount  of 
the  cok)ring-matter  it  contains  and  the  clearness  of  the  3'ellow 
it  imparts  to  the  wool,  —one  pound  of  flavine  being  equal  to 
ten  pounds  of  the  bark  and  to  thirty  pounds  of  fustic.  In 
using  flavine  it  has  to  be  made  into  a  paste  before  adding  it 
to  the  dye-tub,  and  after  it  is  thus  prepared  it  should  be  i>sed 
soon,  as,  if  allowed  to  stand  overnight,  it  will  precipitate 
and  deposit  a  brownish-yellow  mass  in  consequence  of  its  not 
being  all  completely  soluble  in  water ;  even  if  boiled  in  dis- 
tilled water  and  allowed  to  stand  for  tAventy-four  hours  it  will 
form  the  same  deposits.  The  proper  mordants  for  this  drug 
are  alum,  tartar,  and  nitro-muriate  of  tin.  The  acids  lighten 
the  color  of  a  solution  of  flavine  and  the  alkalies  deepen  it, 
causing  it  to  assume  more  of  a  red  color. 

Potash  sulphate  of  alumina  (alum)  gives  a  very  rich  yellow. 

Nitro-muriate  of  tin  gives  a  yellow-orange. 

Muriate  of  tin  gives  a  sulphur-colored  yellow. 

Proto-sulphate  of  iron  (copperas)  gives  a  deep  greenish- 
black. 

These  are  the  re-actions  given  on  a  solution  of  flavine. 


TURMEllIC. 
This  coloring  substance  is  manufactured  from  the  root  of 
the  Curcuma  langa,  a  plant  that  grows  in  the  Indies  and  on 
the  Island  of  Java.  The  root  is  found  in  egg-shaped  tubers 
and  in  flattened  lumps,  and  is  of  a  dirty  yellow  color.  Its 
pure   coloring  matter  is  called  curcumine  (CgllioO.)-     !<-  »« 


272  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

ground  into  a  powder  and  resembles  ginger,  the  solutions  of  it 
have  a  peculiar  smell,  and  it  has  a  bitter  taste.  The  color  given 
by  it  is  very  fugitive,  there  being  no  proper  mordant  for  it 
that  will  make  it  a  permanent  color.  It  is  used  mostly  for 
giving  a  peculiar  tint  to  greens  and  browns  on  cotton  and 
silk,  also  on  wool,  but  not  on  wool  when  colors  are  to  be  per- 
manent. It  is  used  for  test-paper  to  detect  alkalies  and 
boracic  acid,  by  which  the  paper  will  be  turned  to  a  red- 
brown. 


MADDER. 

This  plant  or  shrub  is  termed  Buhia  tinctorium  and  is  culti- 
vated in  France,  Holland,  and  the  Levant,  besides  in  the 
southern,  western,  and  central  parts  of  EurQpe ;  the  East 
Indies  also  furnish  a  large  amount  of  it.  The  coloring-mat- 
ter obtained  from  this  shrub  rivals  indigo  as  a  vegetable-dye, 
both  in  beauty  and  brilliancy  of  the  colors  given  by  it,  as 
well  as  by  the  numerous  shades  that  can  be  dyed  from  it. 

Madder  is  a  perennial  plant,  and  there  are  quite  a  variety 
o(  liubia  tinctorium  plants,  such  as  i?.  peregrina, — that 
cultivated  in  Smyrna  and  Cyprus,  being  the  best  kind ;  the 
R.  mungista  of  Japan  is  found  in  a  wild  state. 

According  to  researches  or  experiments  and  analyses  made, 
the  dye  imported  from  India  under  the  name  of  munjeet  is 
not  the  root  of  the  Ruhia  tinctorium,  but  the  reedy  stem  of  a 
species  of  the  ruhia  plant,  and,  for  dyeing  purposes,  is  very, 
inferior  to  the  root  of  the  plant.  This  plant  is  a  native  of 
Caucasus ;  the  root  generally  is  knotty  or  gnarled  and  a  little 
thicker  than  a  quill ;  externally  its  bark  is  of  a  brownish  color  ; 
internally  it  is  of  a  yellow-red  color;  it  is  first  dried,  after 
being  dug,  and  then  ground  and  put  into  strong  oaken  casks, 
in  which  form  it  is  received  by  the  dyer.  ]Madder  should  be 
kept  in  a  dry  place,  as  it  easily  absorbs  moisture,  which  is  an 
injury  to  it ;  when  kept  dry  it  will   improve   by  age  ;  its  age 


THE    AMERICAK^   DYER.  273 

is  ascertained  by  the  appearance  of  the  head  of  the  cask  ;  if  it 
is  two  or  more  years  old  the  head  will  bo  swelled  out  by  the 
swelling,  or,  as  it  is  termed,  the  madder  has  grown  ?  but 
dealers  have  learned  this  criterion  by  which  dyers  judge  of 
the  ai'e  of  madder  ;  so  to  make  new  madder  appear  older  than 
it  really  is,  they  will  moisten  it  at  the  bottom  and  top  of  the 
cask,  which  causes  it  to  swell  and  so  cause  the  heads  of  the 
cash  to  bulge  up.  The  quality  of  the  madder  is  ascertained 
by  its  taste  and  smell ;  the  good  will  have  a  heav}',  sweet 
smell,  with  an  earthy  flavor  ;  its  taste  is  a  bitter-sweet ;  when 
exposed  to  moisture,  its  color  will  pass  from  the  orange-yellow 
tint  to  a  deep  red.  What  is  Ivuown  as  mull-madder  is  the 
refuse  and  dust  from  the  floor  of  the  grinding-room  ;  there- 
fore it  is  of  an  inferior  quality,  and  we  mighf  say,  of  the 
worst  quality.  Mull-madder  is  not  used  in  this  country  at 
the  present  time ;  the  principal  use  made  of  it  now  is  in  the 
production  of  garaiiceux,  which  we  will  speak  of  hereafter. 

Madder  is  sometimes  adulterated  with  brick-dust,  red  or 
yellow  ochres,  sand,  clay,  sawdust  from  mahogany,  logwood, 
and  sandal-wood.  The  mineral  impurities,  such  as  brick-dust, 
ochres,  sand  and  clay,  may  be  detected  by  putting  some  of  the 
madder  in  a  glass  jar  and  pouring  boiling  water  upon  it ;  the 
madder  will  float  and  the  above  impurities  will  sink  to  the 
bottom.  To  detect  the  vegetable  adulterations,  Mr.  Pernod, 
of  Avignon,  proposes  the  following  tests  :  "A  sheet  of  white 
paper  is  immersed  in  a  weak  solution  of  bichloride  of  tin 
(nitro-rauriate'  of  tin — formula,  SnCla -f  NHiCl)  for  a  few 
minutes,  then  place  the  paper  upon  glass  or  porcelain,  and 
sift  the  madder  upon  the  paper ;  in  half  an  hour  afterwards 
the  paper  will  show  crimson-red  spots  if  the  madder  contains 
any  of  the  red  woods,  purple  spots  if  it  contains  logwood, 
and  a  yellow  coloration  if  it  contains  any  fustic.  If  the  mad- 
der is  free  from  the  above  adulterations  the  paper  will  be 
colored  a  light  yellow." 

The  first  investigations  made  upon  the  chemical  properties 
of  madder,  led  to  the  discovery  of  two  distinct  culoriiig-mat- 

35 


274  THE    AMEBIC  AX    DYER. 

ters,  one  yellow,  the  other  Fed ;  the  yellow  was  then  called 
xanthine  (now  called  ruherythrinic  acid),  and  the  red,^9?oyjw- 
rine.  Recent  discoveries  have  been  made  which  disclose  five 
distinct  coloring-matters  in  madder,  yet  there  iire  but  two  dis- 
tinct pigments  in  the  fresh  roots,  being  the  two  above-named. 
In  addition  to  these  two  coloring  pigments,  it  was  discovered 
that  madder  contained  about  eight  per  cent,  of  sugar. 

According  to  Dr.  Rochlerder,  the  former  of  these  (^xanthiii) 
is  converted,  under  the  influence  of  a  peculiar  nitrogenous 
substance,  present  in  the  madder-root,  into  alizarine, — the 
essential  coloring-matter  of  madder, — and  into  sugar.  The 
formula  is, — 

C.2pH,,0n  =  C,,H,0,  +  CeH,A  +  H,0. 

Eubeiythriiiic       Alizariue.  Sugar, 

acid. 

Other  investigations  have  proved  that  there  are  five  difier- 
ent  coloring-matters  in  madder,  which  are  thus  named  :  madder- 
purple,  madder-red,  madder-brown,  madder-orange,  and 
madder-yellow.  Besides  these  five  coloring-matters  in 
madder,  it  has  been  found  by  the  German  chemists  that  mad- 
der contains  not  only  these  five  coloring  properties,  but  two 
acid  substances,  which  they  name  the  madderic  and  rubiacic 
acids.  These  acids,  however,  contain  no  known  coloring 
properties,  and  I  have  only  mentioned  them  to  show  the 
knowledge  that  chemists  are  in  possession  of,  and  what  sub- 
stances are  contained  in  madder,  as  obtained  by  their  laborious 
investigations.  These  investigations  of  madder  were  so  im- 
portant,  that  the  Societe  Industritlle  de  JIuUiouse  for  a  num- 
ber of  years  offered  two  thousand  francs  for  the  best  analytical 
investigation  of  the  substances  contained  in  madder.  The 
above-named  coloring-principles  of  madder,  taken  separately 
or  by  themselves,  do  not  form  a  good  dyeing  material,  but 
they  do  constitute  the  elements  which  will  together  produce 
the  richest  and  the  most  permanent  red  d^es  that  the  dyer 
now  possesses.     Practically,  it  is  only  necessary  to  consider 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  275 

macltlcr  as  containing  but  two  coloring  substances  or  prop- 
erties, as  in  former  days  supposed,  one-ot"  which  was  tliedun  or 
yellow,  and  was  considered  the  impure  or  earthy  part  of  the 
madder;  this  impurity  is  what  the  dyer  endeavors  to  get  rid 
of.  The  other  coloring  substance  was  called  the  red  colorin"-- 
matter.  Madder  can  be  made  to  produce  a  variety  of  shades 
by  the  skilful  dyer,  by  the  different  proportions  and  changes  of 
the  mordants  he  may  use ;  and  the  colors  obtained  are  more 
permanent  than  those  produced  by  any  other  vegetable  sub- 
stance known  as  a  dye,  not  excepting  colors  obtained  from 
indigo  or  cochineal. 

The  varieties  of  madder  in  the  market  are  known  and  called 
by  the  name  of  the  country  in  which  they  are  raised  or  grown  ; 
also  by  the  looks  or  appearance  caused  by  the  different  proc- 
esses of  their  manufacture,  previous  to  their  being  received 
by  the  dyer.  The  Dutch  madder,  sa  called,  is  very  coarsely 
ground,  which  enables  the  purchaser  to  judge  of  the  nature 
and  quality  of  the  root  from  which  it  was  made.  This  mad- 
der, you  will  tind,  has  a  sort  of  a  greasy  feeling,  and  a  very 
strong  and  rather  disagreeable  smell  or  odor,  and  its  color 
will  vary  from  a  brown  to  an  orange-red,  the  brown  being 
inferior  to  the  orange-red.  It  will  become  more  damp 
when  exposed  to  the  air  than  any  of  the  other  varieties  of 
madder,  this  being  taken  advantage  of  in  judging  of  its 
quality ;  for  if  good,  its  color  will  pass  from  the  brownish- 
orange  tint  to  a  deep  red  color.  This  madder  is  said  to  be 
uncrqpped  or  cropped  madder,  the  only  difference  being  in  it, 
that  one  is  separated  from  the  bark  of  the  root,  while  the 
other  is  composed  of  both  bark  and  body  of  the  root.  This 
madder  is  in  its  best  state  or  condition  when  it  is  two  or  three 
years  old,  but  it  can  be  older  without  its  coloring  properties 
being  impaired.  Yet  I  think,  at  the  above  age,  it  is  as  good 
as  it  ever  will  be  for  ^jroducing  brilliant  colors. 

The  Alsace  madder  is  very  similar  to  the  Dutch,  and 
although  the  cropping  is  generally  performed  upon  it,  it  is  not 
designated  by  being  cropiied  and  iincro2)p>ed.     It  will  readily 


276  THE    AMEKICAN   DYER. 

absorb  moisture  from  the  air,  and  become  of  a  reddish-brown 
color.  This  madder  is  inferior  to  the  Dutch  madder,  its  odor 
is  more  penetrating  and  its  taste  less  sweet;  yet  it  has  an  equal 
amount  of  bitter,  and  its  color  is  more  yellow  and  will  pas9 
into  brown,  having  a  lesser  orange  tint. 

A  little  experience  will  soon  enable  the  dyer  to  distinguish 
or  judge  the  one  sort  from  the  other,  by  comparison.  The 
Avignon  madder,  at  one  time,  was  considered  the  best. 
There  are  a  number  of  varieties  of  this  madder,  but  all  the 
difference  that  I  could  ever  ascertain  in  them  was  in  their 
different  modes  of  prejiaration,  and  also  the  soil  in  which  the 
plant  grew.  This  madder  will  feel  drier  to  the  touch,  and 
will  not  absorb  moisture  so  readily  as  other  madders  ;  but  if 
exposed  to  a  humid  atmosphere  it  will  undergo  a  great 
change.  Its  smell  is  very  agreeable  ;  its  taste  is  a  mixture 
of  the  bitter  and  sweet ;  and  its  color  will  vary  from  the 
pink  to  a  deep  red  ;  or  we  might  say,  a  reddish  brown.  The 
commercial  marks  upon  the  casks,  to  designate  the  quality, 
are,  — 

S.  F. ,  for  superfine. 

S.  F.  F.,  for  fine  superfine. 

E.  S.  F.  F.,  for  extra  fine,  fine  ; 
but  I  have  found  these  marks  placed  upon  casks  of  an  inferior 
madder,  so  it  does  not  do  to  judge  entirely  by  the  marks.  I 
have  given,  in  the  description  of  the  different  madders,  crite- 
rions  whereby  a  dyer  may  judge  of  the  quality  of  the  madders 
which  he  may  have  to  use,  Avithout  having  to  rely  upon  the 
marks  placed  upon  the  casks.  The  above  varieties  will  of 
themselves  vary  greatly,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  plant, 
and  also  in  the  manner  in  which  the  roots  are  dried  or  otherwise 
prepared.  This  kind  of  madder  can  be  used  when  freshly 
ground,  but  is  better  to  be  kept  a  year  or  more  before  using 
it.  It  does  not  cake  or  become  hard  like  the  other  madders, 
but  if  it  is  too  old  it  becomes  loose  or  powdery,  and  under- 
goes a  kind  of  decomposition. 

As  I  have  remarked  in  this  article,  the  Levant,  or  those 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  277 

madders  brought  from  Smyrna  and  Cyprus,  were  the  best 
kinds.  I  consider  them  so  for  this  reason  :  the  roots  are 
not  taken  out  of  the  ground  until  they  are  four  or  five  years 
old,  while  the  other  madder-roots  are  taken  up  in  every  two 
or  three  years,  and  do  not  become  matured  in  that  space  of 
time,  neither  do  they  contain  so  large  an  amount  of  coloring- 
matter  as  those  roots  of  a  longer  growth.  Madder  can 
become  so  old  that  it  will  not  produce  good  reds  upon  cotton- 
yarn  or  cloth,  and  yet  not  be  unfit  for  coloring  wool  or  woolen 
fabrics;  yet  I  think  that  madder,  after  it  is  three  years 
old,  will  not  produce  so  good  a  result,  either  used  alone  or  in 
combination  with  coloring-matters,  as  when  it  is  but  twelve 
months  since  it  was  ground. 

The  Different  Products  of  Madder. 
There  are  two  coloring  substances  obtained  from  madder 
that  are  largely  employed  in  calico-printing  at  the  present 
time  ;  viz.,  garancine  and  colorine.  Garancine  is  a  chocolate- 
colored  powder,  having  neither  taste  or  smell,  but  from  the 
different  modes  of  extracting  it  from  the  madder,  and  also 
from  the  different  qualities  of  madder  used  in  its  preparation, 
it  varies  greatly  in  quality,  for  which  reasons  it  has  been 
repeatedly  used  and  as  often  abandoned  as  a  dye  on  woolen 
fabrics  ;  but  latterly,  means  have  been  devised  by  which  the 
quality  of  garancine  can  be  tested,  these  tests  having  been  very 
lavoral)le  to  its  more  constant  use  as  a  dyeing  material  for 
cotton  and  calico-printing.  Garancine  was  first  discovered  and 
the  process  of  obtaining  it  described,  by  Robiquet  and  Colin, 
so  long  ago  as  1826  ;  but  this  was  long  before  it  was  generally 
introduced  to  the  trade.  Their  method  of  preparing  it  was, 
to  take  one  part  of  madder  to  six  parts  of  cold  water,  and 
allow  the  mixture  to  soak  for  twenty-four  hours ;  then  it  was 
placed  upon  a  filter  ;  after  draining  thoroughly  it  was  pressed  ; 
then  it  was  again  steeped  in  cold  water,  again  pressed,  and 
so  on  for  the  third  time.  After  these  processes  are  com- 
plete4  there  is  half  as   much  oil  of  vitriol  (by  weight)    as 


278  THE    AMERICAX    DYER. 

there  was  of  madder  used  ;  the  vitriol  is  diluted  with  double 
the  amount  of  water,  the  temperature  being  raised  to  100° 
Fahr.  ;  this  is  then  added  to  the  pressed  madder  as  soon  as 
possible,  then  stirred  up  rapidly;  heat  is  then  employed  and 
the  temperature  raised  to  212°  Fahr.,  and  kept  at  that  heat 
for  one  hour ;  it  is  then  washed  thoroughly  with  water  and 
the  whole  thrown  upon  a  filter;  water  is  then  poured  over  the 
residue  left  upon  the  filter  until  there  is  no  taste  of  the  acid 
left;  it  is  then  taken  and  submitted  to  hydraulic  pressure,  for 
the  purpose  of  getting  rid  of  all  the  water  possible,  after 
which  it  is  dried  and  ground  to  a  ver}^  fine  powder ;  in  this 
condition  it  is  received  by  the  dyer,  and  is  called  garancine. 
During- the  last  eight  or  ten  years  the  consumption  of  this 
article  has  greatly  increased.  Garancine  is  also  obtained  from 
the  waste  madder  of  the  dye-house,  that  is,  from  madder 
that  has  been  once  used  ;  ai>d  the  process  was  patented  in 
1842  or  1843.  The  method,  or  operation  of  producing  it, 
is  so  complicated  and  lengthy  that  few  dyers  would  attempt 
tbe  manufiicturing  of  it,  for  which  reason  I  will  not  give  a 
description  of  the  process,  but  will  state  the  action  of  garan- 
cine with  re-agents  and  water,  so  far  as  I  have  tried  them  :  — 

Water,  with  ammonia,  gives  a  beautiful  red  color. 

Water,  with  carbonate  of  soda,  gives  a  bright  reddish  color. 

Water  and  alum  give  a  chrome-red  color. 

Water  (boiling)  and  alum  give  a  dark  red  color. 

Ammonia  gives  a  red ;  in  a  few  hours  it  is  so  deep  that  it 
is  not  transparent. 

Water,  with  muriatic  acid,  gives  a  greenish-yellow  tint. 

Water,  with  sulphuric  acid,  gives  the  same  after  a  few  hours. 

Water,  with  nitric  acid,  gives  a  still  darker  tint,  but  passes 
to  a  brownish  blue. 

The  value  of  garancine  (as  a  dye)  to  madder,  is  one  to  four  ; 
that  is,  one  pound  of  garancine  will  produce  as  good  a  red  as 
four  pounds  of  madder. 

Floicers  of  Madder.  This  preparation  is  obtained  on  a 
large  scale,   from   madder,   by  soaking  it  in   water,   jvhich 


THE    AMERICAX   DYER.  279 

causes  the  sugar  coutaiuod  in  it  to  ferment.  After  it  has 
soaked  or  fermented  for  forty-eight  hours,  the  residue  is  then 
thoroughly  washed,  first,  in  lukewarm  water,  then  in  cold  ; 
it  is  subjected  to  hydraulic  pressure  to  remove  the  water ;  it 
is  then  dried  at  a  gentle  heat,  then  ground  up  again,  then  it 
is  used  in  the  same  way  as  the  ground  madder  for  coloring 
purposes. 

The  flowers  of  madder,  when  dyeing  with  them,  do  not 
require  so  hot  a  bath  as  madder  itself  does.  When  the 
flowers  of  madder  are  boijed  in  wood  spirits  (methylic 
alcohol)  a  very  copious  yellow  precipitate  is  formed,  from 
which,  after  being  washed  in  cold  water  and  dried,  you  obtain  a 
substance  called  azale,  which  has  been  tried  as  a  dyeing  material 
in  France,  but  no  good  results  have  yet  been  obtained  from  it. 
Probably  this  substance  is  the  crude  alizarine  met  with  in  the 
market,  under  the  name  of  pincoffine,  it  being  first  discovered 
and  prepared  by  Mr,  Pincoffs,"  of  Manchester,  England. 

Colorine.  The  substance  met  with  in  the  market  under 
the  name  of  colorine  is  the  alcoholic  extract  of  garancine  dried, 
and  is  composed  of  alizarine,  purpurine,  fatty  matters,  and 
other  substances  soluble  in  alcohol  present  in  garancine.  E. 
Kapp,  some  years  since,  exhausted  madder  with  an  aqueous 
solution  of  sulphurous  acid,  and  so  obtained  the  pigments  of 
madder  in  a  pure  state  (which  he  used  for  technical  purposes). 
These  preparations  are  now  extensively  used,  and  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  names  of  green  alizarine,  and  that  obtained 
from  the  Alsace  madder  amounts  to  about  four  percent.,  con- 
taining, with  the  alizarine,  a  green  resinous  material  called 
yellow  alizarine  ;  the  former  substance  (green  alizarine)  is 
without  the  resinous  material,  this  having  been  eliminated  by 
suitable  solvents,  as  purpurine  and  flowers  of  madder.  Mad- 
der of  a  good  quality  yields,  on  a  large  scale, — 

Purpurine,      .         .         .       '1.15  per  cent. 
Green  alizarine,      .         .         2.50    "     " 
Yellow         "  .         .         0.32    "     " 

Flowers  of  madder  .       39.00    "     " 


280  THE    AMEKICAIf   DYER. 

Alizarine.  The  researches  and  experiments  of  Graebe  and 
Liebermann  prove  that  alizarine  is  a  derivative  from  anthracen 
(C14H10),  the  formula  of  alizarine  being  (Cj^HgO^).  Aliza- 
rine is  yellow  but  will  become  red  under  the  action  of  alkalies 
and  alkaline  earths. 

Anthracen,  from  which  artificial  alizarine  is  obtained,  is 
present  in  coal-tar  to  the  amount  of  .75  or  1.0  per  cent.,  and 
was  discovered  in  1830  by  J.  Dumas.  In  1869,  Graebe  and 
Liebermann  first  commenced  employing  it  for  the  production  of 
anthracen  red,  or  artificial  alizarjne.  According  to  the  origi- 
nal method  of  preparing  alizarine  the  anthrachinan  (Ci4Hg02) 
obtained  from  anthracen  by  the  action  of  oxidizing  agents, 
such  as  nitric  acid,  was  first  converted  into  bibromide  of 
anthrachinan  (Ci4HcBr202)  by  treating  anthrachinan  with  bro- 
mide, and  this  bromated  compound  was  further  treated  either 
with  caustic  potash  or  caustic  soda  at  a  temperature  of  180°, 
or  200°  Fahr.,  the  bibromide  of  anthrachinan  being  converted 
into  alizarine  potash  (or  alizarine  sodium,  if  caustic  soda  had 
been  used)  from  which  the  alizarine  is  set  free  by  the  addition 
of  muriatic  acid.  Alizarine  is  now  made  or  prepared  from 
anthrachinan  by  heating  it  to  a  temperature  of  2(15°  Fahr. 
with  fuming  or  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  ;  the  anthrachinan 
is  by  this  operation  converted  into  a  sulpho-acid  ;  this  acid 
they  then  neutralize  with  carbonate  of  lime  (CaCOs)  ;  the 
fluid  is  decanted  from  the  precipitated  gypsum,  then  carbon- 
ate of  potash  (KCO3)  is  added  to  it  in  order  to  precipitate 
all  the  lime ;  this  solution  is  then  evaporated  to  dryness,  the 
resulting  saline  mass  is  converted  into  alizarine  potassium 
(Ci^HyK^Oi)  by  heating  it  with  caustic  potash  (KOH) .  From 
the  alizarine  potassium  thus  obtained  the  alizarine  is  set  free 
by  the  aid  of  h^'drochloric  acid  (muriatic  acid).  By  another 
method  anthracen  is  employed  directly  for  obtaining  aliza- 
rine, by  first  converting  it,  with  oil  of  vitriol  and  heat,  into 
anthracen  sulpho-acid  (QsHigSH^Og).  After  being  diluted 
with  water,,  the  solution  of  this  acid  is  next  treated  with  such 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  281 

oxidizing  ngents  as  nitric  acid,  chromic  acid,  and  lead,  and 
the  fluid  is  next  neutralized  with  carbonate  of  lime.  There 
is  no  doubt  but  anthracen  may  be  converted  into  alizarine  by 
other  means,  and  it  is  very  likely  that  from  other  hydro- 
carbons, such  as  benzol,  toluol,  nai)hthaline)  jjresent  in  coal- 
tar,  anthracen  red  may  be  obtained.  Alizarine  with  alkalies 
gives  a  violet  solution,  and  is  nearly  insoluble  in  a  solution  of 
boiling  alum ;  it  is  soluble  in  turpentine,  naphtha,  and  fat 
oils  ;  chk)rine  turns  it  to  a  yellow  brown  ;  sulphuric  acid  dis- 
solves it  but  at  the  same  time  brightens  up  the  color;  muri- 
atic and  nitric  acids  will  dissolve  it  and  change  the  color  from 
red  to  yellow. 

Green  alizarine  is  considered  as  good  as  the  commercial 
alizarine,  and  better  than  the  flowers  of  madder,  and  it 
requires  from  ten  to  twelve  per  cent,  less  mordant ;  it  should 
be  made  into  a  paste  with  water  before  adding  it  to  the  bath. 
The  coloring  power  of  alizarine  is  ninety-five  times  greater 
than  madder. 

Pi(rpuri)ie.  This  is  also  a  product  of  madder,  and  is  equal 
to  sixty  times  its  weight  of  the  madder  from  which  it  .was 
extracted.  It  is  soluble  in  ammonia,  acetic  acid,  and  water; 
also  in  the  alkaline  carbonates.  The  alkalies  give  a  red,  but 
will  fade  by  exposure  to  air  ;  alum  gives  a  pink  color.  Purpurine 
is  not  afl'ected  by  lime,  but  alizarine  may  be  precipitated  by 
it.  [You  will  find  recipes  for  coloring  with  purpurine  in 
another  part  of  this  work.]  Purpurine  does  not  give  good 
purples  on  cotton,  with  iron  mordants.  In  coloring  cotton- 
yarns  with  madder,  or  the  different  products  of  madder,  the 
mordants  used  are  the  acetate  of  alumina,  or  red  liquor,  so 
called,  acetate  of  iron  (iron  liquor),  acetate  of  lead,  acetate 
of  copper,  and  the  chlorides  of  tin. 

As  above  stated,  purpurine  is  not  aflfected  by  lime,  but 
alizarine  may  be  precipitated  by  it.  These  two  assertions 
are  correct ;  that  is,  when  we  come  to  take  into  consideration 
the  nature  of  the  various  kinds  of  madder  that  these  products 

36 


282  THE    AlVIERICAN   DYER. 

might  be  extracted  from ;  for  instance,  the  madders  from 
Alsace  and  Holland  are  grown  in  argillaceous  soils,  and  have 
an  acid  re-action,  and  will  require  a  certain  amount  of  lime 
or  soda  in  order  to  be  neutralized.  But  the  Avignon  madder, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  grown  in  calcareous  soils,  and  is  per- 
fectly neutral,  and  an  excess  of  lime  would  be  injurious  in  its 
results.  The  same  reasons  are  also  applicable  to  garancine,  as 
it  often  contains  an  excess  of  acid.  In  this  case  calcareous 
water  (lime-water)  would  be  beneficial. 

Under  the  head  of  garancine,  I  should  have  mentioned  that 
it  requires  the  same  mordant  that  madder  does,  and  that  it 
will  yield  up  its  coloring  properties  only  at  a  boiling  heat, 
and  that  the  water  is  but  slightl}'-  colored  before  the  wool  or 
fabric  is  entered.  A  small  amount  of  sumac  is  very  benefi- 
cial when  coloring  reds  on  cotton-yarn  with  garancine.  The 
color  obtained  from  garancine  is  more  lively  and  brilliant 
than  that  from  madder,  and  in  printing  on  cotton  the  color 
is  not  so  liable  to  run  into  the  white,  for  which  reason  the 
cloth  is  more  easily  cleared  than  it  would  be  if  madder  was 
used. 

Purpurine  is  very  soluble  in  a  solution  of  alum,  and  the 
solution  will  turn  to  a  pink  color.  Alkalies  give  a  solution 
of  purpurine  a  red  color,  but  the  color  will  not  stand  expos- 
ure to  the  air. 

In  using  purpurine  for  coloring  silk,  it  should  be  neutral- 
ized with  either  chalk  or  soda-ash;  and  for  cotton,  the  yarn 
must  be  mordanted  in  the  usual  manner  for  reds,  with  the 
addition  of  a  little  tannin ;  and  for  calico-printing,  use  three- 
quarters  of  an  ounce  to  one  quart  of  water,  and  twenty-two 
per  cent,  of  soda-ash.  These  are  boiled  up  together,  then 
filtered,  and  thickened  with  the  usual  thickening.  Wool  is 
mordanted  with  alum,  tartar,  and  nitro-muriate  of  tin,  or  tin 
crystals.  AVith  tin  and  tartar  for  a  mordant,  we  get  a  scarlet 
nearly  as  good  as  a  cochineal  scarlet.  Alum  and  tartar,  with 
purpurine,  give  a  crimson-red. 


THE    AMERICAX   DYER.  283 

A  good  tin  solution  for  piiipuriue  is  made  as  follows  : 
30  lbs.     Nitric  Acid, 
10  lbs.     Water, 
5  lbs.     Sal-Animoiiiac, 
5  lbs.     Feathered  Tin. 
After  the  acid  has  become  cold,  add  the  tin  gradually.    Not 
to  be  used  until  it  is  four  or  five  days  old. 


LOGWOOD. 


This  dyeing  material  was  first  discovered  by  the  Spaniards, 
in  1662  (in  Honduras),  and  was  brought  to  Europe  shortly 
afterwards.  They  called  it  Camjyeclda,  but  it  is  known  to 
botanists  by  the  name  of  Ikauialoxijlon  CampeacJiianum.  Its 
nature,  and  the  art  of  using  it  as  a  coloring  agent,  seem  to 
have  been  but  little  understood  in  Queen  Elizabeth's  time,  as 
we  find  an  act  of  parliament  prohibiting  and  abolishing  its  use 
in  her  domain,  imposing  a  penalty  of  imprisonment  and  the 
pillory  upon  any  dyer  who  should  use  it.  Upwards  of  a  hun- 
dred years  elapsed  before  the  virtues  of  this  dye-wood  were 
known  and  acknowledged,  and  at  the  present  time  there  is  no 
other  wood  so  universally  used,  or  useful,  as  logwood  ;  but, 
like  mau}^  other  valuable  dyestuft's,  it  was  used  for  a  long  time 
before  the  true  nature  of  its  coloring-principle  Avas  known. 
Some  time  near  the  year  1810,  Chcvreul  made  a  chemical 
examination  of  logwood,  and  by  careful  investigations  found 
that  it  contained  a  distinct  and  pure  coloring-principle,  which 
be  called  liematine  (not  liemateine) ,  a  name  which  has  since 
been  changed  to  htematoxyline  (Ci,jH,40e),  so  as  to  avoid 
any  confusion  Avith  the  name  of  a  similar  substance  contained 
in  blood.  It  is  commonl}'  called  extract  of  logwood,  and  is 
a  transparent  crystalline  substance.  By  itself  it  is  not  a 
pigment,  l)ut  is  a  colorable  material,  which  becomes  colored 
when  brought   in  contact  with  stron^j:  alkalies,  and  more  so 


284  THE    AMEEICAX   DYER. 

when  in  contact  with  ammonia  (Nllg)  and  the  oxygon  of  the 
air;  and  a  sohition  of  it  is  nearly  colorless  (especially  in  cold 
water),  but  will  turn  at  once  to  a  purple-red  by  the  addition 
of  the  smallest  quantity  of  ammonia.  Chevreul's  process  for 
obtaining  the  extract  (hivmatoxyline,  or  coloring-principle) 
of  logwood  is  to  digest  the  ground  or  chipped  wood  in  water, 
at  120^  or  130°  Fahr,,  afterwards  filtering  the  licjuor  and 
evaporating  to  dryness,  and  that  which  remains  is  put  into 
alcohol ;  this  is  again  filtered,  and  the  clear  liquor  is  evapo- 
rated until  it  becomes  thick ;  to  th'rs  is  added  a  little  water, 
and  evaporated  again  ;  it  is  then  left  to  iteelf,  and  the  color- 
ing-matter crystallizes.  The  extract  possesses  the  same  prop- 
erties as  the  decoction  of  the  wood,  and  is  in  comparative 
strength  to  good  logwood  as  one  is  to  five  ;  that  is,  one  pound 
of  extract  is  equal  to  five  pounds  of  the  chips.  The  action 
of  metallic  oxides  upon  the  hsematoxyline,  or  hematine,  is 
somewhat  similar  to  their  action  upon  logwood  itself,  varying 
considerably  with  the  dissolving  menstrua  of  the  oxide,  and 
the  particular  state  of  oxidation. 

Proto-salts  of  iron  give  blue-black  precipitates  —  perma- 
nent. 

Per-salts  of  tin  give  deep  wine-colored  precipitates,  which 
become  brown. 

Chloride  of  tin  gives  a  rich  wine-color. 

Acetate  of  copper  gives  a  greenish-black,  passing  to  brown. 

Acetate  of  lead  gives  a  brownish-black  precipitate,  passing 
to  gray. 

Salts  of  alumina  give  wine-colored  precipitates  —  perma- 
nent. 

These  are  the  principal  metallic  salts  used  with  logwood, 
and  their  effects  upon  it ;  but  the  acids  in  which  the  oxides 
are  dissolved  have  a  material  effect  upon  the  results  obtained, 
the  iron  being  used  in  a  state  of  sulphate  or  acetate,  and  the 
tin  as  chloride  with  free  acid,  and  the  copper  and  lead  as 
acetates. 

Erdmauu  made  an  improvement  upon  Chevreul's  method  of 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  28o 

obt:iiningh{\?niiitoxyline  from  the  rough  wood.  After  convert- 
ing a  decoction  of  it  into  extract,  -he  evaporated  the  extract 
to  dryness;  then  pulverized  and  mixed  it  with  a  quantity  of 
pure  silicious  sand,  to  prevent  the  agglutination  of  the  extract. 
It  is  then  left  to  stand  a  few  days  in  five  or  six  times  its 
quantity  of  ether.  This  mixture  is  often  shaken  or  stirred  up. 
The  clear  solution  is  then  poured  off  and  distilled,  until  there 
is  but  a  small,  syrupy  residue  left,  and,  by  this  means,  most 
of  the  ether  is  saved.  This  residue  is  then  mixed  with  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  water,  and  allowed  to  stand  a  few  days,  when 
the  hivmatoxyline  crystallizes,  and  may  then  be  dried  between 
tissue  or  blotting  paper.  These  crystals  dissolve  easily  in 
hot  water,  but  very  slowly  in  cold  water.  They  are  also  solu- 
ble in  alcohok  Dissolve  these  crystals  in  distilled  water,  and 
the  solution  will  be  a  beautiful  wine-color;  but  if  there  is  the 
least  trace  of  lime  or  iron  in  the  water,  the  color  of  the  solu- 
tion will  be  materially  changed.  Re-agents  have  a  powerful 
action  upon  them.  Potash  will  change  the  color  of  the  solu- 
tion to  a  violet,  but  it  will  quickly  turn  to  a  purple,  and,  in  a 
short  time,  will  be  almost  colorless,  on  account  of  the  oxygen 
being  absoibed,  and  the  ha^matoxyline  is  thereby  discharged, 
and  the  potash  is  converted  into  a  carbonate  from  the  decom- 
position of  the  coloring-matter. 

There  is  an  extract  of  logwood  manufactured  in  France  in  a 
crystalline  form,  the  crystals  being  of  a  very  dark-red  color. 
This  is  htematoxyline  with  a  number  of  impurities  ;  yet  it 
yields  a  considerable  amount  of  color. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  that  Erdmann  obtained  the  crys- 
tals by  his  experiments,  and  not  the  extract,  as  we  dyers 
receive  it. 

Logwood  contains  resin  and  oil,  sulphate  of  lime  and 
alumina,  besides  the  coloring  matter.  These  ingredients  vary 
in  the  wood  from  the  West  Indies,  and  in  that  from  Cam- 
peachy. 

A  solution  of  the  wood  is  changed  from  its  natural  color,  by 
alkalies,  to  a  purple,  and,  by  acids,  to  an  orange  shade. 


286  THE    AMEUTCAX   DYETt. 

Almost  all  ihe  metallic  and  earthy  salts  cause  abmulant  pre- 
cipitates, or  lakes,  with  its  solutions,  the  colors  varying  from 
violet  to  black,  but,  in  all  cases,  will  retain  a  tinge  of  the  vio- 
let hue  ;  and  a  solution  of  logwood  always  throws  down  a 
compound  color,  whose  proportions  of  red  and  blue  vary  with 
the  diflereiit  metals  used,  and  each  gives  deeper  shades, 
according  as  it  is  more  or  less  oxidized.  Solutions  of  tin 
alone,  of  all  the  metallic  salts,  give  it  the  property  of  resist- 
ing acids,  and  by  a  proper  course  taken  with  a  mordant  of 
tin,  a  purple  can  be  obtained  as  dural)le  as  indigo-blue.  Alum 
always  gives  violet-colored  shades.  Logwood  enters  into  the 
composition  of  drabs,  slates,  violets,  plums,  dahlias,  purples, 
and  all  colors  that  have  a  tinge  of  the  violet  shade  in  them  ; 
also  in  some  very  dark  browns,  &c.  ;  but  its  principal  con- 
sumption is  in  logwood  blues  and  blacks,  to  which  it  com- 
municates a  softness  and  glossy  lustre,  unequalled  by  any 
other  material. 

The  mordant  which  gives  it  the  gi-eatest  degree  of  perma- 
nence, is  sulphate  of  iron  ;  that  is,  in  all  the  colors  named 
above,  with  the  exception  of  violet,  when  the  solution  of  tin 
is  the  proper  mordant. 

In  Parkes's  Chemical  Essays,  he  makes  this  observation  in 
regard  to  logwood  :  "  Considerable  advantage  is  derived  by 
woolen-dyers  from  the  use  of  water  in  the  preparation  of  their 
logwood,  by  spreading  it  out  and  sprinkling  it  with  Avater, 
and,  in  that  moistened  condition,  it  is  thrown  into  heaps  or 
bins,  and  allowed  to  remain  as  long  as  possible  before  using  it, 
and,  by  thtit  treatment,  the  wood  becomes  heated  or  sprung, 
and  thus  undergoes  a  very  remarkable  change."  But  the  dyer 
is  now  saved  that  trouhle^  as  the  dealers  have  become  aware  of 
this  practice  or  custom  of  the  dyer,  and  now  icet  it  down 
themselves  with  lime  and  water  (thereby  making  a  greater 
profit,  by  selling  water  in  place  of  logwood),  and,  by  this 
method,  they  can  make  the  poorest  wood,  thus  doctored,  ap- 
pear equally  as  good  as  the  best.  The  lime  in  the  water  gives 
the  wood  a  rich  red  color,  a  property  possessed  by  all  alkalies 


THE    A3IERICAX   DYER.  287 

and  ulkaline  earths.  But  this  adulteration  can  be  detected 
by  steeping  a  small  quantity  of  the  logwood  in  a  dipper  or 
tumbler,  in  some  distilled  water,  and  then  trying  the  decoction 
■with  delicate  test-paper.  The  practice  of  using  lime-water  on 
logwood,  by  dealers,  is  why  dyers  have  suih  poor  ground  1o<t- 
wood,  as  all  alkaline  matters,  when  in  connection  with  lo"-- 
wood,  although  at  first  they  give  a  rich  color,  will  soon  pass 
into  a  brown,  and  then  to  a  dark-looking  mass,  or  like  dirty 
sawdust. 

I  do  not  know  of  any  simple  and  accurate  n)ethod  of  testing 
logwood  that  could  be  introduced  into  the  dye-house,  or,  at 
least,  none  but  what  would  take  too  much  time  and  trouble 
for  most  dyers. 


QUERCITRON-BARK. 

This  drug  is  the  inside  bark  of  the  black  oak.  It  is  a 
native  tree  of  North  America,  and  termed  Quercus  nhjra  and 
Quercus  tindoria  by  botanists.  It  was  formerly  used  for  yel- 
lows, oranges,  and  other  colors  wherein  the  yellow  is  pre- 
dominant ;  but  it  is  now  superseded  by  flavine.  It  is  very 
rich  in  coloring-matter,  and  water  just  below  the  boiling  point 
will  extract  the  color  more  abundantly  than  if  boiled,  and  by 
boiling  it  you  extract  the  tannin  and  gallic  acid,  of  which  it 
contains  a  large  amount ;  these  two  substances  are  very  injuri- 
ous to  the  color,  if  you  wish  to  have  a  clear  and  brilliant 
shade.  A  strong  solution  of  this  bark,  when  it  is  evjiporated, 
will  leave  a  resinous  substance  of  a  cinnamon  color,  which  is 
called  quercitrine  (CajjITa^O;).  This  substance  was  first  ex- 
tracted from  bark  by  Chevreul  and  BoUey,  and  like  all  other 
extractive  coloring-matters,  is  considered  to  be  the  oxide  of  a 
colorless  base..    The  composition  of  quercitrine  is — 

Carbon,  16;  hydrogen,  8;  oxygen,  9;  water,  1. 

Dr.  Bancroft  was  the  first  to  discover  the  coloring-proper- 
ties of  this  bark,  and  made  it  known  to  the  public  in  1763. 


288  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

Some  three  years  afterwards,  there  was  an  act  of  parliament, 
giving  him. the  exclusive  use  and  application  of  it  for  a  term 
of  years.  One  pound  of  this  bark  is  equal  to  three  pounds 
of  fustic  in  coloring-principle. 

The  proper  mordant  for  quercitron  is  alum,  tartar,  and 
murio-sulphate  of  tin,  the  whole  mordant  combined  to  be  about 
one-half  the  weight  of  the  bark  used,  and  the  bark  to  be  two 
pounds  for  every  ten  pounds  of  clean  wool,  for  the  fullest 
yellows.  The  proportions  of  the  two  acids  that  compose  the 
solution  of  tin,  must  be  made  to  vary  if  we  wish  to  obtain 
yellows  of  a  lemon  shade,  or  yellows  of  an  orange  shade ;  for 
the  orange  hue,  we  must  have  the  greatest  proportion  of  mu- 
riatic acid,  and  for  the  lemon  shade  we  must  have  an  equal 
amount  of  sulphuric  and  muriatic  acids  ;  or,  in  other  words, 
it  must  be  a  sulpho-muriate  of  tin.  (See  article  on  making 
tin  solutions.)  • 

The  o-eneral  rule  for  determinins^  the  inclination  of  this 
coloring-matter,  either  to  the  lemon  or  orange  cast  of  shade, 
is,  supposing  we  are  using  the  murio-sulphate  of  tin,  and  we 
wish  to  vary  from  a  common  yellow,  we  will  have  to  decrease 
the  amount  of  alum  and  tartar  (more  particular  the  tartar), 
and  make  up  the  deficiency  with  muriate  of  tin,  and  boil  the 
goods  well,  if  we  want  the  orange  cast ;  and  for  the  lemon 
cast  it  will  be,  to  increase  the  amount  of  alum  and  tartar, 
especiall}'  the  tartar,  and  diminish  the  amount  of  the  tin 
solution,  and  make  up  the  deficiency  when  a.  decided  lemon 
shade  is  wanted,  by  the  addition  of  sulphuric  acid,  equal  in 
volume  to  half  the  solution  of  tin  left  out;  that  is,  supposing 
we  are  leaving  out  two  pounds  of  the  tin  solution,  you  must 
add  one  pound  of  sulphuric  acid  to  the  remaining  tin  solu- 
tion. 

We  can,  however,  give  the  lemon  shade  without  so  much 
trouble,  by  just  tinging  the  dyeing-bath  with  thf  least  amount 
of  sulphate  of  indigo  (chemic),  and  the  orange  cast  by  cochi- 
neal or  a  little  carbonate  of  soda,  but  it  will  be  best  to  give 
the  particular  hues  by  a  variation  in  the  mordant. 


THE    AMERIC^iN   DYER.  289 

A  solution  of  this  bark  will  give  the  following  results  with 
these  re-agents ; — 

Alkalies,  a  deep  orange  color. 

Alum,  a  canary  yellow. 

Muriate  of  tin,  a  reddish-yellow. 

Nitro-muriate  of  tin,  a  rich  yellow. 

Copperas,  a  greenish-oliv^e  tint. 

Nitric  acid,  a  red  precipitate. 

Sulphuric  acid,  a  red  precipitate  after  standing  awhile. 

Lime,  a  precipitate  of  a  yellowish-red  color. 

Muriatic  acid,  a  reddish-yellow  precipitate. 

By  letting  a  solution  of  bark  stand  for  twentj^-four  hours, 
it  will  become  sour,  and  will  lose  a  greater  part  of  its  coloring- 
principle,  and  is  therefore  unfit  for  use,  as  the  yellow  coloring- 
matter  is  deposited,  and  what  remains  in  solution  will  give  a 
dull  color.  For  the  above  reasons,  the  wool  or  fabric  should 
be  entered  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  bag  containing  the 
bark  is  taken  out  of  the  dyeing-bath. 


LAC-DYE. 
This  dyeing  material  we  receive  from  the  East  Indies,  and  it 
is  the  production  of  an  insect  called  Coccus  lacca  and  Coccus  Jicus. 
It  deposits  upon  the  branches  of  the  tree  the  cellular  substance 
called  stick,  from  which  the  lac-dye  of  the  dyer  is  extracted. 
This  is  done  by  boiling  the  stick-lac  in  alkaline  water,  which 
dissolves  the  coloring-matter,  along  with  some  of  the  resinous 
matters.  To  this  solution  is  added  some  alum,  which  precip- 
itates the  whole  as  an  aluminous  pr(Jduct  or  cake ;  these  cakes 
are  then  ground  to  a  fine  powder,  in  which  condition  it  is 
received  by  the  dyer.  This  dye  was  first  introduced  as  a  dye 
some  sixty  years  ago,  in  the  state  of  a  lac-lake,  which  is  the 
coloring  matter  of  the  stick-lac,  but  this  lac  containing  a 
large  amount  of  resin,  as  well  as  other  matters  of  an  earthy 

37 


290  THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 

or  glutinous  nature,  it  was  not  only  very  difficult  to  obtain 
even  a  decent-looking  color,  but  the  cloth  had  a  harsh,  sticky, 
disagreeable  feeling,  and  dirty  appearance,  and  it  was  almost 
impossible  to  wash  the  sticky  and  insoluble  matters  from  the 
cloth. 

At  the  time  of  its  introduction  as  a  dyeing  material,  it  was 
a  very  difficult  operation  to  color  with  it  to  what  it  is  at 
the  present  day,  for  the  dyers  have  been  gradually  making 
improvements  upon  their  methods  of  using  it,  by  freeing  the 
coloring-matter  from  its  earthy  and  resinous  matters.  Good 
ground  lac  should  be  an  impalpable  powder,  having  a  smooth 
and  tine  feeling  like  tiour,  without  any  gritty  or  sandy  feeling, 
with  few,  if  any,  shining  particles  intermixed  with  it.  When 
incorporated  with  an  equal  amount  of  nitro-muriate  of  tin,  it 
will  form  a  bright,  red-colored,  stiff  and  smooth  paste. 
When  coloring  with  lac,  the  wool  or  cloth  will  require  more 
boiling  than  if  you  were  using  cochineal.  Lac  does  not  give 
so  clear  and  beautiful  a  color  as  cochineal,  but  it  will  with- 
stand the  action  of  acid  and  alkaline  tests  much  better,  and  it 
will  retain  its  peculiar  beauty,  or  resist  the  light  and  atmos- 
phere for  a  greater  length  of  time,  than  the  color  given  by 
cochineal.  Lac  contains  about  two-thirds  as  much  pure  color- 
ing-matter as  cochineal,  and  as  the  other  matters  are  injurious 
to,  or  of  no  use  as  a  coloring  substance,  this  will  in  a  measure 
account  for  the  difference  there  is  in  the  beauty  of  the  reds 
produced  by  lac  and  cochineal. 

Dr.  Bancroft  found  that  acids  would  destroy  the  gummy 
matter  contained  in  lac,  and  cause  the  coloring-principle  of  it 
to  be  made  more  soluble.  There  are  different  methods  of 
using  the  raw  acids  with  lac;  some  dyers  take  thirty-two 
parts  of  lac  and  digest  it  with  ten  parts  of  muriatic  acid 
diluted  with  the  same  amount  of  water  (ten  parts),  and  stir 
it  up  from  time  to  time,  and  set  it  aside  for  twenty-four 
hours.  Other  dyers  use  three  pounds  of  sulphuric  acid 
(H0SO4)  to  four  pounds  of  lac.  After  mixing  the  tlvo 
together,  they  then  add  two  quarts  of  boiling  water  to  it,  and 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  291 

stir  it  lip  well,  then  le:ive  it  for  twenty-four  hours.  I  think 
the  best  way  to  free  lac  from  the  gummy  and  resinous  sul)- 
stance  it  contains  is  to  digest  it  in  about  ten  times  its  weisht 
of  water  with  about  one-fourth  the  weight  (of  the  lac)  of 
sulphuric  acid.  Or,  to  be  more  explicit,  we  will  suppose  that 
it  requires  sixteen  pounds  of  lac  for  our  purpose  ;  then  take 
one  hundred  and  sixty  pounds  of  water,  with  four  pounds  of 
sulphuric  acid  added  to  it ;  after  mixing  it  well,  let  it  stand 
for  two  days  ;  it  is  then  ready  for  use.  In  dyeing,  you  will 
make  no  account  of  the  oil  of  vitriol,  but  put  in  just  the  same 
amount  of  tin  solution,  and  other  materials  that  you  would 
use  with  the  lac.  The  mordants  are  the  same  for  lac  and 
cochineal,  with  the  exception  of  the  tin  solution,  which  should 
be  the  nitro-muriate  of  tin,  called  by  many  yellow  spirits. 
Lac  and  cochineal  are  not  so  much  used  as  formerly,  being 
superseded  by  the  tar,  or  aniline  colors.  Most  of  the  scarlets 
and  oranges  are  now  made  with  purpurine  and  artificial 
alizarine. 


RED  SANDERS,  OR  SAUNDERS. 
This  is  the  wood  of  the  Pterocarpus  santalinus,  and  is  a 
native  of  India,  and  attains  its  greatest  perfection  in  the 
mountainous  districts,  especially  in  the  moimtains  of  Ceylon 
and  Coromandel.  It  is  a  very  large  tree,  with  alternate 
branches,  and  has  petiolate,  ternate  leaves,  each  simple  leaf 
being  ovate,  l)lunt,  somewhat  notched  at  the  apex  ;  they  are 
entire,  veined,  smooth  on  the  upper  surface,  and  hoary  under- 
neath. The  flowers  are  yellow-colored.  They  stand  erect, 
and  are  somewhat  reflexed  at  the  sides,  being  toothed  and 
waved,  spreading  with  their  edges  apparently  toothed,  and 
•the  carina  is  oblong,  short,  and  somewhat  inflated.  The 
wood  comes  in  roundish,  or  angular  billets.  Internally,  it 
has  a  blood-red  color;  externally,  it  is  brown,  caused  by 
exposure  to  the  weather  and  atmosphere.     It  is  very  compact, 


292  THE    AMERICAX   DYER. 

heavy,  and  fibrous.  For  the  dyer's  use  it  is  ground  up  into 
a  coarse  powder.  It  has  little  or  no  smell  or  taste.  It  gives 
a  red  color  to  alcohol,  ether,  and  alkaline  solutions,  but  not 
to  water.  It  is  a  hard,  resinous  wood,  more  so  than  either 
camwood  or  barwood.  According  to  the  investigations  of 
some  chemists,  it  is  a  variety  of  barwood  ;  at  least  they 
assert  that  its  coloring-principles  are  the  same,  and  that  the 
composition  of  both  are  alike  ;  yet  they  term  the  pure  color- 
ing-matter of  Sanders,  santalin,  and  that  of  barwood,  hrezilin. 
These  being  entirely  different  substances  one  from  the  other, 
we  do  not  see  how  their  coloring-principles  can  be  alike,  and 
dyers  find  that  there  is  a  great  difference  between  sanders 
and  barwood  in  the  color  given  by  them.  Barwood  gives  a 
bluer  red  than  sanders.  The  re-action  of  alum  with  sanders 
gives  a  violet  or  purple  precipitate,  but  with  barwood,  alum 
gives  a  very  blue-violet  precipitate.  Neither  do  the  different 
chromates  have  the  same  re-actions  upon  barwood  that  they 
do  on  sanders,  and  for  these  reasons  I  cannot  see  how  their 
coloring-principles  can  be  the  same.  If  a  solution  of  red 
sanders  is  made  with  alcohol,  the  sulphate  of  iron  will  pro- 
duce a  deep  violet  precipitate,  and  a  scarlet  precipitate  with 
bichloride  of  mercury  (HgCl,).  The  pure  coloring-principle 
was  discovered  by  Pelletier,  and  named  b}'^  him  Santalin. 
This  sul)stance  is  of  a  resinous  character,  scarcely  soluble  in 
cold  water,  but  more  soluble  in  boiling  water.  It  is  very 
soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  acetic  acid,  and  alkaline  solutions. 
Weyermann  and  Hafferh'  have  found  it  to  possess  acid  prop- 
erties. Astringents — such  as  sumac,  galls,  &c. — aid  the 
water  in  extracting  the  coloring-matter  from  red  sanders.  It 
requires  more  boiling  than  any  of  the  other  red  woods  to 
extract  its  coloring  matter. 

"Without  a  mordant,  sanders  gives  a  dull,  orange-red  color 
to  wool,  which  is  quite  permanent.  Sanders  contains  more 
tannin  than  either  barwood  or  camwood,  for  which  rea- 
son it  imparts  a  more  harsh  feeling  to  the  wool  or  cloth ; 
but   for    some    particular   shades    of    browns,    it   is   prefer- 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  293 

able  to  either  cannvood  or  harwood.  The  re-actions  of  the 
metallic  salts  are  the  same  on  saiiders  as  on  barwood,  witli  tlie 
above-named  exceptions. 

The  composition  of  sanders  is — 

Carbon,  .  .  .    •      .         .  .10 

Oxygen, 32 

Hydrogen,     ......  8 

Consequentl}'^  its  formula  is  thus  expressed, — Ci,;0;j,Hs. 

Ked  sanders  is  also  known  by  the  name  of  sand:d-wood, 
sapan-wood.  There  are  two  varieties  of  this  wood,  the  red 
and  yeUow.  Some  chemists  describe  it  as  a  variety  of  bar- 
wood,  and  call  the  pure  coloriiig-matter  santaline. 

According  to  the  researches  of  H.  Weidel  in  1809,  he 
found  that  sanders  contained  a  colorless  body  which  he  named 
sandal,  and  which  by  oxidation  can  be  converted  into  santa- 
line, and  gave  its  formula  (C8H,-,0;j).  Pelletier  gave  its  formula 
(CieHgOy.,).  Alcohol  only  will  extract  all  its  coloring-matter 
from  the  wood.  In  colorii>g  with  this  wood,  it  is  preferal)le 
to  use  as  large  a  quantity  of  sumac  as  is  compatible  with  the 
shade  or  color  desired. 

In  saddening  with  the  different  metallic  salts  and  alum,  the 
colors  will  be  similar  to  camwood  colors,  only  that  the  color 
will  be  duller  and  not  so  intense,  which  is  owing  to  its  color- 
ing-matter inclining  more  towards  the  orange  cast  than  that 
of  barwood  or  camwood.  The  principal  use  of  sanders  is  for 
coloring  browns  ;  it  is  used  for  the  preparation  of  colored 
lakes,  for  staining  furniture  polish,  for  coloring  sheepskins 
red,  and  as  a  pigment  in  tooth-powders. 


SUMAC. 

This  shrub  is  a  native  of  Syria,  called  b}' botanists  B/n's 
coriaria  ;  it  is  cultivated  in  Spain,  Portugal,  Italy,  and  Sicily ; 


294:  THE   AMERICAN   DTEK. 

it  is  known  in  the  market  as  the  Sicily,  Malaga,  and  Verona 
sumac ;  the  first-named  is  considered  the  best  kind.  The 
shrub  irrows  to  the  height  of  from  six  to  ei^ht  feet.  The 
trunk  or  stem  is  divided  at  the  bottom  into  many  irregular 
brauchcs  ;  the  bark  has  a  brownish  color ;  the  leaves  branch 
out  from  the  stem  into  six  or  seven  pairs,  with  an  odd  one  at 
the  terminus.  These  leaves  are  placed  alternately  on  the 
branches,  and  are  surmounted  with  a  blossom  of  a  greenish- 
white  when  they  are  ripe,  but  of  a  red-blood  color  before 
ripening.  This  shrub  grows  wild  in  North  America  and 
Southern  Europe.  When  this  shrub  is  used  for  dyeing  pur- 
poses, it  is  cut  down  every  year  ;  but  if  for  tanning  purposes, 
it  is  three  years  old  before  it  will  be  cut,  for  which  purpose 
it  is  nearly  as  good  as  oak  bark,  as  it  contains  from  twelve  to 
fifteen  per  cent,  of  tannic  acid,  while  oak  bark  contains  from 
fourteen  to  sixteen  per  cent,  according  to  the  age  of  the  tree. 

The  sumac,  as  I  have  said,  is  cut  dowA  every  year  (if  for 
the  use  of  the  dyer),  then  dried  and  ground  into  powder. 
This  powder  is  of  a  yellow  or  bluish-green  color,  when  re- 
ceived by  the  dyer.  A  boiling  solution  of  sumac  has  a 
fragrant  and  a  ver}'  agreeable  odor,  somewhat  resembling  the 
smell  of  boiling  tea.  Sumac  has  superseded  nutgalls  in  cot- 
ton-dyeing, as  the  cotton-dyers  at  the  present  time  use  it  for 
bottoming  their  reds,  browns,  blacks,  purples,  and  a  number 
of  other  shades.  If  used  for  barwood  reds  the  Verona  is  the 
best,  as  the  Sicily  sumac  does  not  contain  as  much  tannic  acid 
as  the  Verona,  and  these  reds  being  a  heavy  color,  it  requires 
a  strong  bottom  ;  therefore  dyers  have  to  use  one-third  more 
of  the  Sicily  than  of  the  Verona  sumac  for  barwood  reds. 

Sumac  solutions,  like  those  of  nutgalls,  should  be  used  as 
soon  as  possible  after  being  boiled,  as  they  ver}'  soon  com- 
mence to  ferment,  which  decomposes  the  coloring-matters, 
the  tannic  acid  contained  in  the  galls  and  sumac  being  con- 
verted into  secondar}'  products,  owing  to  a  spontaneous 
fermentation.  We  will  easily  ascertain  this,  by  a  simple 
experiment :  boil   up   a  given   quantity  of  sumac  and  let  it 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  29o 

stand  a  few  dnys  ;  then  boil  up  the  same  amount  for  the  same 
length  of  time  ;  now  heat  up  the  solution  that  has  laid  hy 
these  few  days,  to  the  same  heat  of  the  last  boiled  sumac ; 
take  for  each  solution  the  same  weight  of  cotton-yarn,  and 
immerse  them  in  the  different  solutions  for  the  same  leno'th 
of  time  ;  take  them  out,  and  you  will  find  that  the  effects  pro- 
duced will  be  verj'  different,  the  one  being  a  clear,  light  fawn- 
drab,  the  other  a  dirty,  grayi-sh  yellow,  which  will  prove,  more 
than  any  written  description  can,  how  important  it  is  to  attend 
to  such  small  matters  in  themselves,  but  of  the  utmost  import- 
ance if  we  wish  to  obtain  c:ood  and  correct  results. 

A  strong  solution  of  sumac  gives  very  nearly  the  same 
results  as  a  solution  of  nutgalls,  the  greatest  difference 
between  the  two  being  the  quantity  of  tannic  and  gallic  acid 
that  they  contain.  This  difference  in  the  two  varies  the  effects, 
so  we  may,  in  most  cases,  substitute  a  certain  quantity  of 
sumac  for  a  part  of  the  nutgalls  ;  yet,  in  no  case,  can  it  be 
supposed  that  sumac,  in  any  quantity,  produces  the  same 
results  as  nutgalls  when  applied  to  wool  or  woolen  fabrics, 
but  for  cotton-dyeing  the  sumac  is  by  far  superior  to  nutgalls. 
The  metallic  salts  have  nearly  the  same  re-actions  with  sumac 
as  with  nutgalls. 

NAMES   OF   SALTS   USED.  COLOR   OF  PRECIPITATES. 

Alum  gives        .         .  .         .a  fawn  or  brownish-yellow 

precipitate. 

Nitro-muriate  of  tin  gives  .  .     a  fawn  or  brownish-yellow 

precipitate. 

Blue  vitriol  gives        .         .  .a  yellow-drab  precipitate. 

Copperas  gives  .         .         .         .a  lead-colored  precipitate, 

verffinsf  on  black. 

Nitrate  of  iron  gives  .         .         .     a  decided  blue-black. 

Nitrate  of  copper  gives       .         .     a  grass  green. 

Sumac  is  largely  used  in  Southern  Europe,  where  it  grows 
wild,  for  tanning  purposes,  being  more  particularly  used  for 
preparing  sheep  and  goatskins. 


296  THE    A^IERICAN    DYER. 


NUTGALLS. 

Nutgalls  are  the  excrescences  that  grow  upon  certain  species 
of  the  oak,  Quercus  infedoria,  caused  by  the  puncture  of  the 
cynip  or  gall-icasp  for  the  purpose  of  depositing  its  eggs. 
After  the  wasp  punctures  the  twigs  and  leaves,  it  deposits  the 
eggs  and  the  juice  collects  around  the  Q^^;  this  juice  hardens 
and  forms  the  nutgall.  The  galls  are  best  when  they  are 
picked  before  the  }'oung  insect  has  become  fully  grown,  as 
then  the  gall  contains  the  largest  amount  of  tannic  acid. 

AVc  have  in  the  market  four  kinds  of  nutgalls  ;  the  first 
three  are  known  as  the  black,  green,  and  white  galls.  The 
black  and  green  varieties  are  those  that  have  been  gathered 
l)efore  the  insect  had  become  fully  developed  in  the  nut,  and 
therefore  do  not  show  the  outward  cavity  or  opening ;  but  if 
you  break  the  nut,  you  will  find  in  the  centre  a  small  cavity 
which  is  surrounded  by  a  light-brown  substance,  which  con- 
tains the  larvfe  of  the  insect.  The  white  galls,  so  called,  are 
gathered  after  the  insect  has  perforated  the  nut  and  escaped. 
This  variety  is  more  spongy,  its  color  is  a  red-brown,  or 
sometimes  a  yellow-brown.  The  above  varieties  are  known 
as  the  Aleppo  galls,  Smyrna  galls,  and  the  East  Indian  galls. 
Aleppo  galls  are  the  best,  T3ut  we  must  reckon  under  the  same 
name  those  that  come  from  Mosul  in  Natalia.  The  Mosul 
galls  are  better  than  the  white  and  green  galls,  on  account  of 
being  heavier  and  larger  ;  the  distinguishing  character  between 
the  Smyrna  and  Mosul  galls  is  that  the  darker  kind  of  the 
Mosul  galls  have  a  bluish-brown  color,  while  those  from 
Smyrna  are  of  a  blue-gray  color.  The  fourth  kind  of  galls 
are  brought  from  Trieste  and  Naples,  and  are  generally  of  a 
whitish-red  and  green  color.  Sometimes  we  find  inferior  galls 
in  the  market  which  are  brought  from  Asia  Minor  and  Dal- 
matia  ;  they  are  hollow  and  very  light,  having  a  reddish  color, 
but,  as  the  dyer  obtains  his  nutgalls  in  the  ground  state,  it  is 
ver}'  difiicult  for  him  to  judge  the  quality  or  puritv  of  the 
galls. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  297 

Fehling  found  that  Aleppo  galls  contained  from  00  to  OG 
per  cent,  of  tannic  acid,  while  Fleck  found  58.71  per  cent, 
of  tannic  acid  and  5.9  per  cent,  of  gallic  acid. 

M.  Guibourt's  analysis  gives,  in  one  hundred  parts  :  woody 
fibre,  10.5;  water,  11.5;  tannin,  G5  ;  gallic  acid,  4;  ex- 
tractive matter,  2.5;  starch,  2;  sugar,  2;  gum,  2.5.  Other 
chemists  give,  in  one  hundred  parts  :  tannin,  2G  ;  gallic  acid, 
6.20;  gum,  4.80;  and  the  insoluble  parts,  63.  Sir  H. 
Dav}^  asserts  that  the  best  galls  do  not  contain  but  26  per 
cent,  of  tannin  and  6.2  per  cent,  of  gallic  acid  ;  tannin  and 
gallic  acid  being  generally  found  together  in  the  same  vegeta- 
ble substance,  it  has  been  conceded  by  many  chemists  that 
the  one  did  produce  the  other.  M.  Pelouze  to  a  great  extent 
verifies  this  supposition,  more  particularly  as  regards  the 
tannin  contained  in  nutgalls  ;  he  says  that  if  a  solution  of 
tannin  be  kept  from  exposure  to  the  atmosphere  no  change 
will  take  place  ;  but  if  left  exposed  it  comes  in  contact  with 
oxygen,  the  tannin  undergoes  a  change,  and  gallic  acid  is  then 
formed  in  the  solution  of  tannin. 

Nutgalls  contain  gallic  acid  as  well  as  tannin,  and  they  will 
compare,  one  to  the  other,  as  follows :  — 

^' Gallic  acid :  7  oxygen.  Tannin:  13  ozygen. 

3  hydrogen.  8  hydrogen. 

5  carbon.  17  carbon." 

These  are  the  re-actions  of  some  of  the  metallic  salts  upon 
nutgalls  :  — 

NAJIE   OF    SALTS   VSED.  COLOR   OF   THE   mECIPITATES. 

"Copperas  gives.       .  .  .  black  precipitates. 

Nitro-muriate  of  tin  gives  .  .  fawn-colored  precipitates. 

INluriate  of  tin  gives  .  .  .  straw-colored  precipitates. 

Blue  vitriol  gives        .  .  .  yellow-brown  precipitates. 

Nitrate  of  copper  gives      .  .  grass-green  precipitates." 

38 


298  THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 

The  com1)ining  proportions  of  nutgalls  and  copperas  are 
as  4  to  1  ;  that  is,  one  pound  of  copperas  will  precipitate  all 
the  coloring  matter  from  four  pounds  of  nutgalls. 


INDIGO. 


Indigo  is  a  substance  we  find  widely  dispersed  in  the  vege- 
table kingdom.  The  indigo-plant  is  found  in  India,  Africa, 
Southern  and  Central  America,  Egypt  and  other  parts  of  the 
globe  ;  the  botanical  name  of  the  plant  is  indigqfero.  The 
Hindostan  indigo  is  prepared  from  the  plant  JV^erium  tincto- 
rium.  The  following  five  varieties  of  the  indigo-plant  are 
more  particularly  employed  for  making  indigo  :  Indigofera 
tinciora,  I.  anil,  I.  disperma,  an'd  /.  argenta.  Indigo  is 
found  in  the  woad  plant,  Isatis  iinctoria,  which  plant  is  a 
native  of  Germany,  Great  Britain  and  other  parts  of  Europe. 
Indigo  (or  the  coloring  principle  of  the  plant)  is  not  found  in 
the  plant  ready  formed,  but  in  the  leaves,  as  a  secretion  or 
juice,  and  is  generated  when  the  green  leaves  are  pressed  and 
the  juice  of  the  leaves  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  atmos- 
phere. Dr.  Sehunck  states  that  the  indigo-plant  contains  a 
coloring  matter,  which  he  has  termed  indican  (C52Hg2N2034), 
which,  b}'  fermentation  or  by  the  action  of  strong  acids,  is 
converted  into  indigo-blue  and  a  peculiar  kind  of  sugar, 
indigo  glycine,  and  has  this  formula  :  — 

Q2H02N2O2,  +  4HO2  X  Ci^H.oN^Os  X  6  CoH.oOe 

IiiiUcan.  ludigo-blue.         ludigo  glycine. 

The  plant  requires  a  hot  climate  and  a  soil  so  situated  that 
it  will  not  be  liable  to  inundations.  To  give  a  description  of 
the  method  of  extracting  the  indigo-blue  from  the  plant  would 
require  too  lengthy  an  article,  besides  not  being  of  any 
material  advantage  for  the  dyer's  purpose. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  299 

TliG  plant  from  which  the  Bengal  indigo  is  made  is  w  stnrill, 
straight  one,  with  thin  bninches  spreading  out,  and  I'onnino' 
a  sort  of  turf,  and  averages  about  four  feet  in  height.  The 
leaves  are  soft,  and  resemble  those  of  the  common  clover, 
having  a  blossom  of  a  bluish-purple  color,  and  yield  the 
largest  amount  of  indigo  when  the  plant  is  in  full  bloom,  and 
the  indigo  obtained  from  this  plant  is  considered  the  best,  as 
there  are  less  impurities  in  it. 

It  is  not  positively  known  when  indigo  was  first  introduced 
as  a  dyeing  material,  but  it  wa^  known  to  the  Romans  and 
Greeks,  Avho  used  it  as  a  paint,  under  the  appellation  of  indi- 
cum.  It  was  not  used  as  a  coloring  substance  in  Europe  until 
about  1640,  when  it  was  imported  from  the  Indies  by  the 
Dutch,  at.  which  time  its  use  was  prohibited  in  England, 
under  very  severe  penalties,  and  these  penalties  continued  in 
force  until  King  Charles  the  Second  ascended  the  throne  ;  and 
the  reason  given  for  its  prohibition  was  that  it  had  a  corrosive 
nature,  an(,l  was  destructive  to  the  fibre  of  the  wool,  for 
which  cause  it  was  an  injury  to  the  reputation  of  the  dyers. 
Probably  the  above  opinion  arose  from  the  strong  and 
interested  opposition  to  its  use  by  those  who  cultivated  the 
woad  plant,  which  at  that  time  was  an  important  branch  of 
national  industry,  as  well  as  of  great  profit  to  farmers  and 
merchants,  "and  in  consequence  of  the  woad  depreciating  in 
value,  an  edict  was  issued  against  indigo  beinjr  used  in 
Saxony,  in  the  year  1650,  and  in  1652  Duke  Ernest  the  Pious 
caused  a  proposal  to  be  made  to  the  diet,  by  his  envoy,  that 
indigo  should  be  entirely  banished  from  the  empire,  and  that 
an  exclusive  privilege  should  be  granted  to  those  who 
colored  with  woad." 

"This  edict  was  followed  by  an  imperial  prohibition  of 
indigo,  on  the  21st  of  April,  1654,  which  was  enforced  with 
the  greatest  severity  in  his  domains.  The  same  was  done  in 
France ;  but  in  the  well-known  edict  of  1669,  in  which 
Colbert  separated  the  fine  from  the  common  d^ers,  it  was 
stated  that  indigo  should   be   used  with  woad,  and  in  1737 


300  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

dyci'S  were  left  at  liberty  to  use  indigo  alone,  or  to  employ  a 
mixture  of  indigo  and  woad."  {Baiioiu's  Manufacturing  and 
Machinery  of  Great  Britain).  The  varieties  of  indigo  iu 
the  market  are,  the  Bengal,  Guatemala,  Madras  and  Manilla, 
and  are  valued  as  they  are  named ;  there  are  various 
varieties  of  these  indigoes.  The  varieties  of  Bengal  indigo 
are  numerous.  The  superfine  or  light  blue  is  in  a  cubical 
form,  light  and  friable,  soft  to  the  touch,  gives  a  clean,  smooth 
fracture  when  broken,  and  a  beautiful  copper  color  when 
scraped  with  a  knife.  The  second  kind  is  termed  superfine 
violet,  shows  a  violet-red  color  when  scraped,  and  has  a 
smooth  cleavage;  the  third  is  a  superfine  purple  color;  the 
fourth  is  a  fine  violet,  in  color  less  brilliant  than  the  second, 
and  somewhat  heavier  in  weight;  fifth,  fine  purple-violet 
color ;  sixth,  a  good  violet  color  and  heavier  than  the  fourth ; 
seventh,  violet-red  in  color,  breaks  with  an  uneven  fracture, 
and  shows  mouldy  places  inside ;  eighth,  a  common  violet 
color ;  ninth  a  fine  and  good  red  color,  heavier  than  the 
eighth,  and  a  more  decided  red  ;  the  other  four  varieties 
grow  poorer  till  they  get  to  the  thirteenth  variety.  The 
Guatemala  indigoes  are  of  five  varieties ;  the  best  are  of  a 
bright  blue  color,  and  are  very  remarkably  light  and  fine,  and 
by  some  are  considered  as  good  as  the  Bengal  indigo,  but 
this  is  an  error ;  the  inferior  varieties  have  a  violet  color,  but 
there  is  more  of  a  mixed  Variety  in  them  than  in  the  Bengal 
indigoes. 

In  selecting  indigoes  every  dyer  should  be  on  his  guard 
against  the  defects  of  greater  importance  than  those  named, 
and  these  are  some  of  the  defects  to  be  instilled  in  the  mind, 
and  to  be  avoided  in  purchasing  indigo: — do  not  buy  those 
that  have  large  or  small  fractures  or  cracks ;  those  broken 
into  lumps  of  unequal  size,  fragments  or  irregular  pieces^  and 
fine  enough  to  pass  through  a  coarse  sieve  ;  squares  that  are 
easily  broken  and  show  a  whitish  or  mouldy  substance  inside  ; 
gritty  feeling  lumps,  having  the  appearance  of  granite  in  the 
cleavage ;  those  indigoes  that  have  streaks  or  layers  of  differ- 


THE  america:n^  dyer.  301 

ent  shades  of  blue  in  them,  one  !il)()ve  the  other  in  the  same 
piece  ;  those  that  have  the  appearance  of  being  burned,  which, 
when  rubbed  in  the  hand  will  break  into  small  pieces,  almost 
black  in  color.  Reject  the  indigo  in  which  the  eye  can  detect 
shining  specks,  which  are  nothing  more  nor  less  than  sand. 
The  impurities  of  indigo  are  iron,  clay,  magnesia,  and  silica 
of  a  substance  resembling  gluten.  Sometimes  you  will  tind 
in  a  chest  of  indigo  a  quantity  of  dust  that  will  weigh  eight 
or  ten  pounds.  This  dust  is  an  adulteration  composed  of 
starch,  or  of  white  lead  mixed  with  the  powdered  indigo,  and 
is  put  into  the  chest  to  ^ive  it  more  weight.  Pait  of  the 
above  im[)urities  can  be  dissolved  in  alcohol,  in  diluted  acids, 
alkaline  lyes,  and  even  water.  By  digesting  indigo  in  weak 
sulphuric  acid  we  obtain  a  brown-colored  matler,  which  is 
termed  indigo-brown.  Indigo  also  contains  other  colorins: 
matters,  termed  indigo-red,  indigo-blue,  or  indigotine 
(Cif,HniNoOa),  the  particular  coloring-matter  of  the  plant  for 
which  it  is  valued. 

The  quantity  of  indigo-blue  contained  in  the  several 
varieties  of  indigo  varies  from  20  to  80  per  cent,  of  pure 
coloring-matter. 

The  quality  of  indigo  is,  by  most  dyers,  ascertained  by  its 
deep  blue  color,  and  lightness  in  weight.  From  the  great 
difference  in  the  various  kinds  of  indigo,  it  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  that  the  dyer  should  have  an  easy  and  simple 
method  of  ascertaining  the  true  or  real  value  of  the  indigo  he 
has  to  use ;  but,  as  far  as  I  can  learn,  there  has  been  no  such 
method  found  out.  All  the  known  methods  require  formal 
analyses,  which,  however  important  they  may  be  to  dyers, 
are  too  tedious  and  delicate  to  be  practised  in  most  of  the  dye- 
houses  in  America.  The  usual  method  for  judging  the  quality 
of  indigo  is  by  comparison,  —  placing  several  pieces  together, 
and  breaking  and  comparing  their  clean  surfaces  one  with 
another.  The  best  indigo  will  be  of  a  deep  violet-blue  color, 
and  a  fine  clear  grain,  and,  when  scraped  with  the  nail,  show 
a  good  copper  hue.     Yet  it  requires  long  practice  and  great 


302  THE    AMERICAN   DYEK. 

care  to  be  a  good  judge  of  indigo  by  its  appearances.  In 
selecting  indigo,  it  requires  the  closest  discrimination,  and 
cannot  be  made  except  l)y  a  person  who,  from  h)ng  acquaint- 
ance with  the  use  of  indigo,  has  acquired  an  experimental 
knowledge  of  the  value  of  the  different  varieties,  and  that  per- 
son of  all  others  is  the  practical  and  scientific  dyer.  G.  Leuchs 
found,  that  in  forty-nine  samples  of  indigo,  the  best  kind  con- 
tained sixty  and  a  half  per  cent,  of  pure  indigo,  and  in  the 
poorest  kind,  but  twenty-four  per  cent.  We  see  by  this  how 
difficult  it  must  be  to  select  the  right  kind  of  indigo  for  such 
and  such  purposes,  and  a  practical  eye  and  mind  only  can 
determine  what  variety  is  best  for  their  nses. 

Pure  indigo,  whether  it  is  obtained  by  sublimation  or  other 
chemical  processes,  will  be  of  a  deep  blue,  verging  on  the 
violet  shade.  Indigo  crystallizes  only  by  sublimation  at  a 
heat  of  550°  F.  At  this  heat  it  emits  a  crimson-colored, 
vapor,  having  a  peculiar  odor.  This  gas,  being  caught  in  a 
cooled  receiver,  will  condense  into  needle-shaped  crystals  of 
great  richness  and  intensity  of  color.  These  crystals  will  be 
one-tenth  the  weight  of  the  indigo  emploj^ed,  and  will  produce 
a  brighter,  clearer,  and  better  color  than  the  crude  indigo 
from  which  they  were  obtained.  The  analysis  of  some  chem- 
ists give  the  pure,  or  absolute  coloring-matter  of  indigo,  as 
follows  :  Crum,  eighteen  per  cent ;  Chevrcul,  twelve  per  cent.  ; 
Bergman,  fifteen  per  cent,  in  one  hundred  parts. 

Chevreul  gives  as  the  result  of  his  analysis  of  indigo,  first 
treated  with  water,  second  with  alcohol,  and  afterwards  with 
muriatic  acid,  as  follows  :  — 

Treated  with  Water: 
Green  matter  united  with  ammonia,  .         . "] 

A  little  deoxidized  indigo,         .  .  .  .1 

Extractive  matter, !"     ^^  \^i^n&. 

Gum, . 


THE    AMERICAN   DYEK. 


303 


Treated  with  Alcohol: 
Green  matter,  ..... 

Red  resin,       ...... 

A  little  indigo,         ..... 

Treated  with  Muriatic  Acid , 
Red  resin,       ...... 

Carl)onate  of  lime,  . 

Red  oxide  of  iron,  .  .  .  . 

Alumina,         ...... 


There  remained. 


Silica,     . 
Pure  indigo, 


Bergman  gives  in  100  parts 
Resinous  matter,  „  . 
Earthy  matter. 
Oxide  of  iron, 
Mucilaginous  matter, 
Indigo  remaining,    . 


30  parts. 


3 
45 


103 

(( 

6 

parts 

22 

( t 

13 

( ( 

12 

t  ( 

47 

(( 

100 


Both  of  these  eminent  chemists  give  nearly  one-half  the 
weight  of  pure  indigo  as  the  coloring-matter  of  the  indigo  of 
commerce;  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  that  they  obtained 
a  blue  powder,  and  not  the  crystallizable  color ;  and  should 
this  forty-tive  or  forty-seven  per  cent,  of  blue  powder  be  sub- 
jected to  a  subliming  temperature,  they  would  not  have 
obtained  more  than  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  per  cent,  of  crys- 
tals of  indigo,  and  these  crystals  would  have  given  better 
results  as  to  color  than  the  one  hundred  pounds  of  crude 
indigo  used,  from  which  the  crystals  were  separated. 

The  constitution  of  indigo,  and  the  proportion  of  its  con- 
stituent principles,  according  to  Dr.  Ure,  are  as  follows  :  — 


304:  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

Carbon, 71.37 

Hydrogen,  ....       4.38 

Nitrogen, 10.00 

Oxygen, 14.25  =  100 

Water, 16.00 

Excess  of  hydrogen,  .  .         .       2.52 

Or  thus  :  one  atom  of  nitrogen,  two  of  oxygen,  four  of  hydro- 
gen, and  sixteen  of  carbon. 

Indigo  is  an  insoluble  color  (that  is,  in  its  natural  state, 
and  under  common  circumstances),  and  is  the  most  perma- 
nent of  the  vegetable  colors,  it  being  entirely  unchangeable 
by  the  atmosphere,  and  the  common  agents,  such  as  alkalies, 
and  the  rays  of  light.  It  will  not  combine  (in  its  natural 
state)  with  any  substance,  except  concentrated  sulphuric  acid, 
which  acts  with  such  force  upon  it,  that  it  is  converted  into 
another  substance  ;  for  it  is  no  longer  indigo,  which  is  proved 
by  its  not  exhibiting  the  same  phenomena  in  any  of  the  known 
blue-vats,  neither  by  any  other  method  employed  for  its  de- 
oxidation  and  solution  in  an  alkaline  menstruum.  Sulphuric 
acid  changes  the  naturalcharacter  of  indigo  completely,  as  will 
be  seen  by  coloring  with  the  sulphate  of  indigo  (chemic,  ex- 
tract of  indigo),  which  is  one  of  the  most  fugitive  of  dyes, 
when  fixed  upon  wool  or  woolen  fabrics,  although  the  indigo 
from  which  it  was  prepared  is  the  most  unchangeable  of  dyeing 
materials  or  substances.  Sulphuric  acid  changes  indigo,  and 
dissolves  it  without  deoxidizing  it,  and  it  cannot  be  brought 
back  to  its  original  state  again,  forming  as  it  does  with  the 
acid,  a  chemical  sulphindigotic  acid  (sulphate  of  indigo). 
When  sulphate  of  indigo  is  treated  with  carbonate  of  potash 
(KCOy),  there  will  be  formed  carmine  of  indigo,  a  deep  blue 
precipitate,  which  is  soluble  in  one  hundred  and  forty  parts 
of  cold  water.  Carmine  of  indigo  has  been  lately  made  with 
refined  indigo,  treated  with  strong  muriatic  acid  (IlCl),  which 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  305 

dissolves  the  lime,  iron,  and  other  foreign  siil)stances  in  the 
indigo,  and  afterwards  with  a  diluted  solution  of  caustic  soda 
(NaHO),  which  will  dissolve  all  other  organic  impurities 
remaining,  and  the  result  is  a  greater  brilliancy  of  the  colors 
obtained.  If  indigo  should  be  put  into  fused  hydrate  of  pot- 
ash (KOHO),  its  blue  color  would  entirely  disappear,  and  it 
would  become  partly  decomposed,  along  with  the.  water  of  the 
alkaline  hydrate.  Hydrogen  and  ammoniacal  gases  are  gene- 
rated, while  carbonic  acid  (H2CO3)  and  another  acid,  having 
properties  very  much  like  acetic  acid  (C4O3H3)  are  formed, 
and  they  combine  with  the  potash  (K).  Now  digest  this 
mixture  with  a  small  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  (H,S04),and 
the  alkali  will  combine  with  it,  and  this  will  crystallize;  then 
this  solution  will  combine  with  alkalies  and  other  bases,  form- 
ing very  interesting  salts ;  or,  if  powdered  indigo  is  added  to 
one  part  of  nitric  acid  (HNO3),  and  eight  parts  of  water 
(HO),  and  a  gentle  heat  applied,  it  will  dissolve  and  form  a 
yellow  solution,  and  by  decanting  and  evaporation,  there  will 
be  deposited  a  quantity  of  yellow  crystals,  of  a  sour  or  bitter- 
ish taste.  These  crystals  will  dissolve  again  in  cold  water, 
requiring  nearly  one  hundred  parts  of  water  to  do  it.  This 
is  now  called  anilic  acid,  derived  from  the  name  of  one  of  the 
plants  that  produce  indigo.  It  will  combine  with  all  the, 
known  bases,  forming  salts  that  have  a  yellow  color,  and 
will  give  a  blood-red  color  to  solutions  of  nitrate  of  iron 
(3NOc2Fe).  Add  indigo  to  strong  nitric  acid  (HNO3),  a»cl 
then  apply  heat,  it  will  readily  dissolve,  emitting  a  great 
amount  of  nitrous  gas  (NO3)  ;  allow  this  to  cool  down,  and  a 
large  amount  of  semi-transparent  yellow  crj'stal  will  precipi- 
tate, having  a  strong  bitter  taste,  which  was  formerly  termed 
carbozotic  acid,  but  is  now  called  picric  acid,  of  which  we  will 
give  a  detailed  account  under  the  head  of  picric  acid. 
Chromic  acid  (H,Cr04)  has  nearly  the  same  action  upon  indigo 
as  nitric  acid.  If  powdered  indigo  be  mixed  with  a  solution 
of  caustic  soda  (NaHO)  of  a  specific  gravity  of  70°  Twaddle, 
and  then  boiled,  we  find  that  an  orange-yellow  salt  is  precipi- 

■69 


306  THE   AMEEICAN   DYEK. 

tated,  and  that  the  supernatant  liquid  becomes  blue  by  the 
absorption  of  oxygen  from  the  atmosphere,  the  same  as  a 
solution  of  white  indigo  or  reduced  indigo  (CicHiaN^Oa),  this 
beins  the  same  result  as  coloring  in  the  blue-vat. 

If  indigo  is  mixed  in  water  with  any  metallic  salt  or  sul- 
phuret,  possessing  more  affinity  for  oxygen  than  indigo  does, 
a  change  takes  place  in  their  respective  substances.  The 
indifo  will  pass  from  a  blue  to  a  dull  olive  color ;  this  result 
having  been  produced  by  the  abstraction  of  that  portion  of 
oxygen  that  constituted  the  indigo  a  blue  color,  and  the  salt 
or  sulphuret  has  become  oxidized.  Now  if  an  alkali  (lime) 
is  added  to  the  mixture,  we  will  perceive  a  different  appear- 
ance. The  indigo  having  become  dissolved  in  this  alkaline 
solution,  the  whole  now  exhibits  the  well-known  characteris- 
tics of  the  blue-vat.  The  substances  named  are  such  as  are 
used  in  vats  for  coloring  cotton  fabrics,  and  the  operation,  is 
as  a  gcneial  rule,  performed  in  cold  solutions;  and  what- 
ever means  we  may  employ  for  deoxidizing  the  indigo,  in 
order  to  apply  it  as  a  permanent  dye,  the  substances  used 
must  all  be  based  upon  the  abstraction  of  more  or  less  of  the 
oxygen  contained  in  the  indigo,  and  its  solubility,  while  in  that 
state,  in  an  alkaline  solution.  When  we  dip  an  article  of 
either  wool  or  cotton  in  the  blue-vat,  it  comes  out  of  the  vat 
of  the  same  color  as  the  solution  ;  but  as  the  tendency  of 
indigo  is  to  retain  that  particular  amount  of  oxygen  which 
constitutes  it  a  blue,  it  will  immediately  absorb  that  gas  from 
the  surrounding  atmosphere,  on  which  re-absorption  of  oxygen 
it  will  return  to  its  mitural  state  (blue)  unaltered  in  any  of 
its  properties,  as  an  insoluble  and  unchangeable  color. 

If  indigo  is  placed  in  contact  with  any  substance  or  sub- 
stances that  have  a  strong  attraction  for  oxygen  in  the  presence 
of  an  alkali,  it  will  be  reduced  to  the  white  state,  and  become 
soluble  in  the  alkali ;  this  is  the  result  and  principle  of  the 
blue-vat.  There  are  numerous  substances  that  will  reduce 
indigo  to  the  white  state,  such  as — 


THE   AMEllICAN   DYER.  307 

Protoxide  of  tin,  Turpentine, 

Protoxide  of  iron.  Boiling  paraffin, 

Sulphuret  of  arsenic.  Spermaceti, 

Phospiiorus,  Stearic  acid, 

Tiie  phosphites,  Chloroform, 

Sulphites,  Hydro-sulphite  of  soda. 

Sodium,  Metallic  zinc  and  soda-ash. 

Sugar,  Soda-ash  lye,  with  oil  of  vitriol 

Starch,  and  tin  crystals. 

Calcium, 

Or  add  sulphurous  acid  to  caustic  soda,  then  kill  the  solu- 
tion with  zinc.  This  is  hydro-sulphite  of  soda.  Add  this  to 
the  ground  indigo,  and  wool  or  cotton  can  be  colored  in  it. 

Take  two  parts  of  carbonate  of  soda,  and  one  part  of  sul- 
phur, mix  them  together,  digest  it  in  water,  filter,  and  add 
flowers  of  sulphur,  boil  and  filter.  If  indigo  is  ground  in 
this,  it  is  reduced,  and  can  be  printed  upon  cotton,  and  in  a 
short  time  will  oxidize  and  become  fixed  upon  the  cloth. 
Take  one  part  of  ground  indigo,  and  three  parts  of  hydro- 
sulphite  of  soda  (NaOS.jO..,)  ;  use  carbonate  of  soda  enough 
to  keep  the  indigo  in  solution.  All  these  materials  will 
reduce  indigo  to  the  white  state,  and  then  woolen  or  cotton 
fabrics  can  be  colored  blue  in  their  solutions. 


MUNJEET. 
This  dyeing  substance  is  a  species  of  the  plant  Ruhia  tinc- 
toria,  and  is  cultivated  in  the  East  Indies.  It  is  imported  in 
bundles,  and  ground  into  a  fine  powder  for  the  use  of  the 
dyer.  These  bundles  consist  of  thick  and  thin  stems,  or 
stalks.  The  thin  stalks  are  said  to  contain  less  coloring-mat- 
ter than  the  thick  stalks,  and  the  bark  is  left  on,  while  the 
thick  stalks   are  stripped  of  the  bark.     They  are  very  dry, 


308  THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 

light  and  porous,  and  when  broken  exhibit  a  re(J-orange 
color.  The  powdered  munjeet  is  composed  of  the  thick  and 
thin  stalks  mixed.  The  color  given  by  it  is  equally  as  perma- 
nent, and  far  handsomer,  than  that  given  by  madder. 

This  dyestuff  is  not  used  as  much  as  formerly  for  reds 
(for  which  it  was  chiefly  used),  it  being  superseded  l)y  the 
aniline  reds  and  purpurine  reds.  It  has  been  tried  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  madder  in  the  woad-vat,  on  which  point  dyers  are 
not  agreed,  but  never  having  used  it  in  the  bhie-vat,  we  are 
not  willing  to  pass  our  verdict  for  or  against  its  use  in  the 
woad-vat.  In  coloring  red  with  munjeet,  the  manipulations 
are  the  same  as  when  using  madder  for  the  same  color.  It 
bears  the  solutions  of  tin  much  better  than  madder,  as  it 
requires  a  certain  amount  of  tin  solution  to  give  the  color 
obtained  by  it  the  greatest  brilliancy  and  perfection.  Mun- 
jeet does  not  appear  to  contain  the  different  and  distinct  col- 
oring-matters that  madder  does.  It  has  not  the  same  taste, 
but  the  color  that  is  given  by  it  is  a  more  desirable  red,  with 
less  of  the  orange-yellow  tint  to  it,  than  that  produced  by 
madder.  The  proper  mordants  for  munjeet  appear  to  be 
alum,  tartar,  and  oxalic  acid  ;  then  in  the  solution  of  mun- 
jeet (or  in  the  finishing  bath)  add  some  nitro-muriate  of  tin 
liquor.  The  quantity  of  color  obtained  in  this  manner  is 
equal  to  that  obtained  from  the  same  weight  of  madder. 

Munjeet  is  described  by  Roxburgh,  in  his  treatise  on  the 
Plants  of  the  Coast  of  Coromandel,  as  the  Rottlera  tinctoria^ 
a  small  tree  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  in  height,  frrowins: 
throughout  Hindostan,  in  several  of  the  East  India  islands, 
in  China,  and  in  Australia.  The  fruit  it  bears  is  a  roundish, 
three-valved,  three-celled  capsule,  of  the  size  of  a  small 
cherry,  having  three  furrows  on  the  outside,  and  thickly  cov- 
ered with  a  red  powder.  This  fruit  is  used  as  a  medicine  by 
the  natives.  The  fruit  of  this  plant  is  now  largely  used  as  a 
medicine  in  Great  Britain,  in  cases  of  tape- worm,  its  proper- 
ties as  a  vermifuge  being  first  investigated  by  Dr.  C.  Mackin- 
non,  a  British  army-surgeon  in  India,  who  published  the  re- 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  309 

suits  of  his  observations  in  the  "Indian  Annals  of  McmIIcuI 
Science,"  in  1854.  He  says  :  "I  have  used  this  fruit  in  fifty 
cases  for  tape-worm,  and  failed  in  bringing  away  the  worm 
only  in  two  instances."  The  testimony  of  other  practitioners 
in  India  and  Great  Britain  goes  to  confirm  the  statements  of 
Dr.  Mackinnon,  so  there  can  be  but  little  doubt  of  the  powers 
of  this  fruit  as  a  vermifuire. 

But  we  will  return  to  the  description  of  it  as  a  dyein«^- 
material.  Munjeet,  as  we  have  remarked,  is  received  by  the 
dyer  in  a  powdered  state ;  its  color  is  a  brownish-red,  having 
very  little  odor  or  taste,  but  it  produces,  when  chewed,  a 
slight  sense  of  acrimony  in  the  mouth,  and  has  a  gritty  feel- 
ing to  the  teeth.  It  will  flash  like  gunpowder  when  dropped 
into  the  tlame  of  a  candle.  It  is  insoluble  in  cold  water,  but 
slightly  soluble  in  hot  water.  It  requires  considerable  boil- 
ing to  extract  all  its  coloring-matter.  It  is  readily  dissolved 
in  alkaline  solutions,  which  give  a  resinous  precipitate,  on 
the  addition  of  an  acid  to  the  alkaline  solution.  Under  the 
microscope,  Mr.  Hanbury  found  it  to  consist  of  "garnet-red, 
serai-transparent,  roundish  granules  from  ^^q  to  ^l-^  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  more  or  less  mixed  with  minute  stellate 
hairs,  and  the  remains  of  stalks,  which  were  easily  removed 
by  careful  sifting."  Munjeet  was  chemically  examined  by  Dr. 
Anderson  of  Glasgow,  who  gave  its  constituents:  78.19  of 
resinous  coloring-matter,  7.34  of  al])umen,  7.14  of  cellulose, 
&c.,  a  trace  of  volatile  oil  and  volatile  colorincf-matter,  3.84 
of  ashes,  and  3.49  of  water,  in  100  parts.  He  also  obtained 
a  coloring  substance  in  a  pure  state,  by  allowing  a  concen- 
trated ethereal  solution  to  stand  for  two  days,  then  draining 
it,  and  pressing  in  bibulous  paper  the  resulting  mass  of  gran- 
ular crystals,  and  purifying  them  from  adhering  resin  by  re- 
peated solution  in  ether,  and  crystallization.  To  this  sub- 
stance he  gave  the  name  of  rottlerin.  "Rottlerin  melts  when 
heated  moderately,  and  at  a  higher  heat  it  will  decompose, 
and   emit  pungent  vapors."     "The  formula  of  rottlerin,  ac- 


310  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

cording   to   Dr.   Anderson,    is   C-^-jHiyOg,"  making   its  prime 
equivalent  =  190. 


MUREXIDE. 

Tliis  is  a  fine  purple  dyestuff,  and  was  first  obtained  by  the 
action  of  nitric  acid  upon  uric  acid  ;  it  was,  however,  sup- 
posed by  Mr.  Prouty  to  consist  of  purpuric  acid  and  ammo- 
nia, and  hence  he  named  it  purpurate  of  ammonia,  but 
chemists  are  not  agreed  as  to  its  precise  composition.  It  was 
first  prepared  from  uric  acid,  transformed  into  alloxane,  by 
gradually  throwing  the  uric  acid  into  nitric  acid,  care  being 
taken  that  too  great  an  elevation  of  temperature  is  not 
allowed.  This  mixture  is  then  allowed  to  cool,  after  thirty- 
six  hours  the  alloxane  commences  to  crystallize,  and  after  its 
separation  from  the  excess  of  acid,  it  is  then  re-dissolved  in 
water  and  allowed  to  crystallize  a  second  time.  Anhydrous 
alloxane  has  the  following  formula  : — C3H4N20io' 

Alloxane  in  solution  will  color  copperas  an  indigo-blue 
color,  colors  litmus  red,  and  gives  to  wool  a  purple-red  color, 
which  will  change  to  a  violet  by  soap  or  alkalies.  The  allox- 
ane obtained  as  above  is  dissolved,  and  there  is  then  added  to 
the  solution  carbonate  of  ammonia  ^NH^CCOg,  drop  by  drop 
(the  solution  of  alloxane  being  boiling  all  the  time),  until  the 
solution  has  a  slight  smell  of  ammonia.  By  this  operation 
carbonic  acid  — CO2  is  evolved,  and  then  there  is  a  deposit  of 
crystallized  raurexide  =  CigHgNjOg. 

Murcxide  is  now  generally  made  from  guano,  which  is  first 
treated  with  muriatic  acid  =:  HCl,  in  order  to  remove  the 
foreign  substances  that  the  guano  contains ;  it  is  then  treated 
with  soda  =:  Na,  to  dissolve  the  uric  acid,  which  is  separated 
by  neutralizing  the  soda  with  muriatic  acid  ;  the  uric  acid  thus 
obtained  is  dissolved  in  nitric  acid  =i  NO5 ;  the  solution  is 
heated,  and  after  it  cools,  ammonia  rrzNHg  is  added,  which 
develops  the  purple  color.     Murexide  crystals  have  a  square 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  311 

form,  and  are  of  a  rich  irreen  color  when  viewed  by  reflected 
light,  and  show  a  purple-red  color  by  transmitted  light. 
Murexide  is  slightly  soluble  in  cold  water,  but  more  soluble 
in  boiling  water ;  it  is  insoluble  in  alcohol  and  ether.  With 
potash  it  forms  a  rich  purple  solution,  and,  if  heated,  the 
murexide  will  be  decomposed.  With  zinc  mordants  orange 
and  yellow  shades  are  obtained  ;  with  the  sub-acetate  or 
acetate  of  lead,  it  gives  a  purple-red  color.  All  the  colors 
given  by  this  substance  are  very  beautiful,  but  are  as  fugitive 
as  they  are  beautiful.  The  colors  obtained  by  murexide  had 
a  ijreat  success,  until  the  aniline  colors  were  discovered.  See 
for  an  article  on  the  subject  of  murexide  the  "  Pharmaceutical 
Journal,"  vol.  xviii,  p.  328. 


SAFFLOWER. 


This  is  an  annual  plant,  and  was  formerly  called  dj/er^s 
saffron;  it  is  the  flowers  of  the  Carthanpus  tinctorius,  a  thistle- 
like plant,  and  belongs  to  the  family  of  the  syjnantJierve,  a 
native  of  India  ;  it  is  cultivated  in  Egypt,  the  southern  parts 
of  Europe,  and  also  to  some  extent  in  parts  of  Germany.  It 
has  a  smooth,  erect  stem,  somewhat  branched  at  the  top,  and 
grows  to  the  height  of  two  feet ;  the  leaves  are  alternate,  and 
furnished  with  spiny  teeth,  similar  to  the  common  nettle. 
The  flower  only  of  this  plant  i^  used  for  dyeing  purposes. 
"When  the  flowers  arc  gathered,  they  are  first  pressed  to 
extract  the  juice  ;  then  they  are  washed  in  spring  water  ;  then 
they  are  pressed  between  the  hands  in  small- quantities,  and 
laid  upon  mats  to  dry.  These  cakes  are  covered  up  during 
the  daytime  to  prevent  the  sun  from  shining  upon  them, 
"which  would  not  only  destroy  the  color,  l)ut  dry  the  cakes  too 
much,  and  thereby  cause  further  deterioration.  They  are 
kept  exposed  to  the  dews  of  night,  and  turned  over  occasicju- 
ally,  until  dried  to  the  proper  point,  and  are  then  packed  for 


312  THE   AIMEEICAN  DYEE. 

the  market,  and  in  this  state  are  usually  received  by  the 
dyer." 

The  dj'er,  at  the  present  time,  obtains  this  drug  in  the  form 
of  an  extract  of  safflower,  or  more  correctly  termed,  safflower- 
carmine. 

The  quality  of  this  substance  is  better,  according  to  its 
greater  purity  from  mechanical  admixtures,  such  as  the  seeds 
of  the  plant,  and  leaves  of  the  plant. 

The  flowers  of  the  safflower  are  first  exhausted  iu  a  weak 
solution  of  carbonate  of  soda,  and  in  this  solution  strips  of 
cotton  are  dipped  ;  then  immersed  either  in  vinegar  or  diluted 
sulphuric  acid,  for  the  purpose  of  neutralizing  the  alkali 
(soda).  The  cotton  when  taken  out  of  this  solution  is  colored 
red,  and  is  now  washed  in  a  very  weak  solution  of  carbon- 
ate of  soda,  and  the  solution  thus  obtained  is  precipitated  with 
acid  ;  it  is  then  called  carthamine.  The  carthamine  thrown 
down  by  this  operation,  is  first  carefully  washed,  and  then 
placed  on  porcelain  plates  to  dry. 

Carthamine,  or  rouge  vegetal  {Cy^^^O-)^  after  it  has  been 
rejDeatedly  dissolved  and  precipitated,  is  then  called  safflower- 
carmine.  Carthamine  when  seen  in  thin  films,  has  a  gold- 
green  hue,  but  when  viewed  against  the  light,  it  exhibits  a 
red  color. 

Safflower  contains  two  coloring  principles,  or  matters  ;  the 
one  red,  and  the  other  yellow ;  the  red  has  been  termed 
carthamine,  and  is  insoluble  in  water  ;  the  yellow  is  soluble  in 
water ;  there  has  as  yet  been  no  term  or  name  given  to  the 
yellow  coloring-matter  in  safflower. 

Carthamine,  mixed  with  French  chalk  {silicate  of  magnesia)  ^ 
forms  the  cosmetic  powder  called  rouge. 

Safflower  is  very  often  fraudulently  mixed  with  safi'ron, 
which  it  resembles  in  color,  but  saffron  can  be  distinguished 
from  safflower  by  its  tubular  form,  and  the  yellowish  style 
and  filament  which  they  inclose. 

There  is  a  tree,  a  native  of  China,  called  Gardenia  grandi- 
flora,  the  fruit  of  which  contains  the  same  yellow  coloring- 


THE    AMERICA^T   DYER.  313 

matter  that  the  safflower  does,  which  is  employed  to  dye  the 
yellow  robe  of  the  Mandarins.  In  a  chemical  examination  of 
this  frnit,  in  the  laboratory  of  Rochleder,  the  result  was  the 
discovery  of  a  coloring  substance  which  proved  to  be  identical 
with  that  of  safilower,  and  to  which  the  name  of  o'ocin  was 
given  ;  this  crocin,  in  powder,  is  of  a  bright-red  color,  and  is 
soluble  in  water  and  alcohol.  By  treating  this  powder  with 
muriatic  acid,  it  yields  another  coloring-matter  called  cvoce^m, 
"which  is  the  true  coloring-principle  of  the  fruit. 

There  is  a  substance  in  the  market  called  saflfraninc,  used  as 
a  substitute  for  safflower,  but  we  have  as  yet  had  no  experience 
in  its  use,  and  therefore  cannot  speak  of  it  with  confidence  ;  but 
those  dyers  who  have  used  it  say  that  it  is  equal  to  safflower 
iu  brightness,  and  is  more  permanent.  In  coloring  cotton, 
the  liquor  of  the  safflower  is  used  as  extracted  from  the  plant. 
The  yarn  is  to  be  well  bleached  first.  One  pound  of  the 
safflower  is  used  to  one  pound  of  yarn,  and  this  proportion 
makes  a  dark  rose.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  water 
must  be  as  pure  as  possible  for  coloring  with  safflower,  and 
used  cold.  A  very  little  heat  will  destroy  the  color,  and  the 
yarn  must  be  dried  iu  the  shade,  but  not  with  artificial  heat. 
The  colors  produced  by  this  material  are  the  most  l)eautiful 
that  can  be  made  upon  cotton,  although  very  fugitive.  Beau- 
tiful lavenders  and  lilacs  can  be  colored  on  cotton  with 
safflower  and  prussiate  of  potash,  by  first  coloring  the  yarn  a 
Prussian  blue,  then  topping  ofi"  with  the  safflower  ;  but  there  is 
great  ditBculty  in  obtaining  equal  colors.  In  this  process, 
the  blue  must  be  put  on  with  prussiate  and  copperas,  and  not 
with  prussiate  and  nitrate  of  iron,  as  the  nitrate  of  iron  acts 
upon  the  safflower  by  oxidizing  and  destroying  its  beauty  and 
depth.  The  copperas  is  not  so  corrosive  as  the  nitrate,  and 
will  preserve  the  peculiar  tint  of  the  safflower  much  better. 
In  dyeing  silk  with  safflower  a  pink  shade,  the  silk  must  first 
receiv9  a  bottom;  that  is,  it  must  first  be  passed  through  a 
weak  solution  of  either  archil  or  cudbear,  so  as  to  give  it  a 
light  lavender  or  flesh  color,  the  depth  to  be  governed  by  the 

40 


314  THE   AI^fERICAX   DYER. 

shade  of  pink  wanted.  It  is  then  passed  through  the  safflovver 
solution,  to  which  has  been  added  a  very  little  citric,  acetic, 
or  sulphuric  acid.  After  the  silk  has  taken  up  the  color 
from  the  solution,  it  is  washed  in  cold  water,  then  washed 
again  in  another  clear  water  made  slightly  acid  either  with 
citric  acid  or  cream  of  tartar.  Sulphuric  or  acetic  acid  should 
not  be  used  in  the  last  washing. 

The  safliower  solution  for  dyeing  silk  is  prepared  l)y  pass- 
ing some  cotton-yarn  through  the  safflower  extract.  The 
cotton-yarn  takes  up  nothing  except  the  red.  This  cotton- 
yarn  is  then  thoroughly  washed  in  cold  water  till  the  water 
coming  from  it  is  perfectly  clear.  The  yarn  is  then  steeped 
for  a  sliort  time  in  water  made  slightly  alkaline  with  carbonate 
of  potash,  which  extracts  the  red  from  the  cotton-yarn.  This 
solution  is  the  dye  for  the  silk. 

Like  cotton  colored  by  safflower,  silk  must  be  dried  in  the 
shade,  care  being  taken  that  the  sun's  rays  cannot  strike  it. 
If  all  necessary  precautions  are  not  taken,  the  dyer  will  have 
the  trouble  of  putting  the  cotton  or  silk  through  the  last  acid- 
water,  if  not  have  to  re-dye  it  altogether.  Many  chemists 
object  to  the  theory  that  carthamine,  or  the  red  coloring-sub- 
stance of  safflower,  is  the  oxide  of  a  colorless  base,  as  we  have 
observed  in  regard  to  woods,  and  some  of  their  investigations 
and  reasoning  bear  evidence  of  care  and  judgment,  thus 
adding  an  interest  and  inciting  practical  dyers  to  a  more  skil- 
ful investigation  upon  the  subject  of  vegetable  coloring- 
matters. 


YALONIA,  OR  VALONEY-XUTS. 
These  are  the  cups  of  the  acorn  from  the  Yalonia  oak, 
which  grows  wild  in  the  Dardanelles  and  the  islands  of  the 
Archipelago,  and  in  Asia  Minor.  They  are  imported  from 
Smyrna  and  its  vicinity  in  great  quantities.  The}'  contain  a 
large  amount  of  tannin  and   gallic  acid.     Yalonia-nuts  are 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  315 

inferior  to  nutgalls  and  suinuc  for  coloring  cotton,  bnt  for 
wool-dyeing  they  are  as  good  as  sumac  or  nutgalls.  For  silk- 
dyeing  they  possess  some  peculiarities  which  are  exceedingly 
valuable,  especiallj^  for  blacks,  giving  a  black  on  silk  more 
permanent  than  that  obtained  with  nutgalls,  and,  moreover, 
the  producing  of  the  proper  black  with  this  substance  upon 
silk  requires  a  peculiar  and  certain  method,  which  a  very  few 
dyers  have  attained. 

The  Valonia-nut  is  used  now  only  for  coloring  hats  black,  for 
which  purpose  it  is  superior  to  sumac  or  nutgalls,  as  it  with- 
stands the  different  operations  which  felt-hats  are  sul)jected 
to  much  better  than  the  galls  or  sumac. 


WELD,   OR  WOLD. 

This  is  an  annual  plant,  extensively  cultivated  in  France, 
and  other  parts  of  Europe,  for  the  purpose  of  coloring  yellow. 
Its  botanical  name  is  Reseda  luteola.  It  is  an  inodorous 
plant,  having  a  bitter  taste,  which  is  very  adhesive.  Chev- 
reul  obtained  from  it,  by  sublimation,  a  peculiar  yellow  color- 
ing-matter, which  he  called  luteoUn.  It  is  still  largely 
employed  in  France  for  coloring  yellow,  but  since  the  intro- 
duction of  quercitron-bark,  and  flavine  into  England,  it  has 
not  been  used  there,  neither  is  it  now  used  in  America.  It  is 
found  in  the  market  in  small,  dried  bundles.  The  more 
slender  the  stems  are,  the  better  it  is  considered  for  dyeing- 
purposes.  The  plant  grows  to  the  height  of  three  feet,  in 
straight  stalks  or  stems.  Both  the  stems  and  seeds  are  used, 
as  they  both  contain  the  coloring-matter,  but  the  seeds  are 
said  to  contain  it  in  a  greater  quantity.  The  coloring-matter 
approaches  very  nearly  to  that  of  quercitron  in  chemical  prop- 
erties, and  of  all  the  vegetable  dyes  it  is  the  least  acted  upon 
by  acids  and  alkalies,  which  gives  to  the  color  produced  by  it, 
as  far  as  these  substances  are  concerned,  great  permanence. 


316  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

But  it  has  this  counteracting  disadvantage,  that  the  color  fades 
rapidly,  or  will  pass  away  when  exposed  to  the  action  of  the 
atmosphere  and  light.  Under  these  influences  it  becomes 
oxidized,  for  which  reason  it  has  been  abandoned  as  a  dye. 
.  A  solution  made  from  this  coloring-substance  is  of  a  yellow 
color,  with  a  reddish  tint  to  it,  and  has  a  very  bitter  taste, 
with  a  peculiar  smell.     It  has  the  following  re-actions : — 

Sulphate  of  iron  gives  a  yellowish-olive  precipitate. 
Muriate  of  tin  gives  a  yellow  precipitate. 
Alum  gives  the  same  result. 
Acids  darken  the  yellow  ;  and 
Alkalies  change  it  to  a  bright  yellow. 

The  mordant  that  produces  the  best  results  (or  the  most 
proper  preparation)  is  alum  and  tartar,  in  the  proportion  of 
three  of  alum  and  one  of  tartar  to  every  fifteen  pounds  of 
clean  w^ool,  and  boiling  the  wool  two  hours.  The  color  given 
by  using  the  above  mordant  always  inclines  to  the  lemon- 
shade,  but  the  color  is  of  such  softness  and  purity  that  no 
other  dyeing  material  equals  it  (aniline  dyes  excepted). 

The  different  solutions  of  tin  can  be  used,  along  with  alum 
and  tartar,  when  coloring  yellows  on  yarn  or  flannels,  but 
\vould  be  objectionable  for  goods  that  have  to  be  fulled,  be- 
cause the  solution  of  tin  will  give  a  precipitate  or  color  with 
weld,  that  will  not  penetrate  the  body  of  the  cloth  sufficiently 
for  such  faln'ics  as  have  to  be  fulled. 

"Weld  had  been  used  for  coloring  woolen  and  silk  long 
before  it  was  used  on  cotton  fabrics.  We  quote  from  Dr. 
Bancroft  this  clever  fraud  in  regard  to  the  use  of  weld  in 
coloring  yellow  and  green  on  cotton  goods  :  — 

"In  1773  the  sura  of  £2,000  sterling  was  granted  by  par- 
liament to  a  Dr.  Williams,  as  a  reward  for  his  discovery  of  a 
fast  3'ellow  and  green  d3'e  upon  cotton  yarn  and  thread. 

"This  supposed  fast  dye  was  given  by  the  combination  of 
weld   with  a  certain  mordant,  the  composition  of  which  the 


THE  .  A^IERICAISr   DYER.  317 

patentee  was  pei'mitted  to  conceal,  that  foreigners  might  not 
enjoy  the  benefit  of  his  discovery  ;  while  he,  on  his  part,  en- 
gaged to  supply  the  cotton  and  thread  dyers  with  his  dye  at  a 
certain  fixed  price.  The  mordant  used  was  supposed  by 
chemists  to  be  a  solution  of  tin  alone,  or  of  tin  and  l)ismuth, 
which  gives  to  ^Veld-yellow  the  power  of  resisting  the  action 
of  acid  and  boiling  soapsuds,  although  it  is  not  proof  against 
the  continued  action  of  the  sun  and  air. 

"This  defect,  however,  was  not  easily  discernible,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  ingenious  method  which-  the  inventor  cra- 
j)loyed  to  obtain  a  favorable  testimony  of  the  dyers  upon  the 
subject.  Pie  caused  his  specimens  of  dyed  yarn  to  be  woven 
into  pocket-handkerchiefs,  and  gave  them  to  be  worn  in  the 
pockets  of  those  who  were  afterwards  to  attest  to  the  good- 
ness of  his  dye ;  and,  as  handkerchiefs  worn  in  pockets 
were  not  exposed  to  the  action  of  sun  and  air,  this  want 
of  permanency  was  not  discovered  until  some  time  after  the 
reward  was  paid  for  an  invention  which  proved  of  little  or  no 
value." 

Weld  should  be  stored  in  a  dry  place  and  kept  free  from 
dirt  or  the  admixture  of  other  dyestuffs. 


PASTEL. 


The  pastel  is  a  plant  cultivated  in  France,  Germany,  Eng- 
land, and  Saxony,  but  is  cultivated  in  France  more  exten- 
sively than  in  either  of  the  other  countries  named,  and,  not 
unlike  woad,  it  is  distinguished  in  the  dilierent  varieties 
according  to  the  localities  from  which  we  receive  it.  Pastel, 
like  woad,  contains  a  blue  coloring-matter,  also  a  fawn- 
colored  yellow  substance ;  these  matters  can  be  separated 
from  the  pastel  and  woad  by  treating  them  with  hot  water  be- 
fore the  fermentation  takes  place  in  the  operation  of  couching. 


318  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

We  are  indebted  to  M.  Chevreul  for  the  analysis  of  the 
pastel,  which  gives  us  some  light  upon  its  use.     He  says  :  — 

"  When  the  leaves  are  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  press 
there  is  obtained,  on  the  one  hand,  a  residue  of  a  ligneous 
nature,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  a  juice,  which  holds  in  sus- 
pension sundry  matters  which  give  it  a  cldudy  appearance. 
Throwni  upon  a  filter,  it  leaves  a  greenish  matter,  or  fecula, 
which  is  formed  of  wax,  indigo-blue,  and  a  nitrogenous  sub- 
stance. The  clear  liquid,  after  passing  through  the  filter, 
contains  this  nitrogenous  substance  coagulable  by  heat ;  a 
nitrogenous  substance  non-coagulable  by  heat ;  a  rod  matter, 
resulting  from  the  union  of  the  blue  coloring-principle  with 
an  acid  ;  a  yellow  principle ;  gummy  matter ;  some  liquid 
sugar ;  a  fixed  organic  acid  ;  free  acetic  acid  and  acetate  of 
ammonia  ;  a  volatile  principle,  having  the  odor  of  osmazome  ; 
citrate  of  lime ;  sulphates  of  lime  and  potash  ;  phosphates  of 
lime  ;  magnesia ;  iron  and  manganese  ;  nitre,  and  chloride  of 
potassium." 

It  appears  that  Chevreul  did  not  find  in  the  above  products 
any  substance  which  possessed  the  power  of  seizing  upon 
oxygen  with  energetic  force,  and  which  explains  the  action  that 
pastel  has  in  the  blue-vat.  Yet  there  is  no  doubt  but  Avhat 
the  principles  furnished  by  the  pastel  intervene,  that  is  to  a 
certain  extent,  as  combustibles,  and  we  must  refer  at  least  a 
part  of  their  effect  to  this  manner  of  action.  For  the  pastel- 
vat  the  indigo  should  be  of  the  very  best  quality,  —  the  Ben- 
gal indigo  having  been  proved  ^y  dyers  most  conversant  with 
working  pastel  to  be  the  cheapest  and  best;  and,  in  fiict,  a 
dyer  will  use  no  other  in  a  pastel- vat,  if  it  is  possible  to 
obtain  it. 

Before  indigo  was  introduced  or  knovvu  in  Europe,  pastel 
and  woad  were  the  blue-dyeing  materials,  and  were  known 
as  such  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

Pastel  is  a  bie'nnial  plant,  and  is  a  species  of  the  Isatis 
tinctoria;  its  leaves  have  a  fugitive,  pungent  odor  and  a  very 
acrid  taste. 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  319 

The  leaves  of  the  pastel  have  been  used  by  physicians  in 
jaundice,  scorbutic  aliVctions  and  like  diseases. 

The  distinction  between  pastel  and  woad  is  not  very  clear. 
Schutzonberger  says:  "Pastel,  woad,  and  Isaiiti  lindoria  is  a 
plant  of  the  family  of  the  Crucifera.  It  would  seem,  how- 
ever, that  the  ievxn  pastel^  as  used  by  the  old  French  dyers,  is 
applied  to  the  leaves  of  the  woad  which  have  been  fermented, 
formed  into  paste,  and  afterwards  into  balls,  and  which  con- 
tain much  bhie  coloring-matter.  And  the  term  icoacl,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  j^as^e?,  is  applied  to  the  unfermented  plant." 
We  cannot  see  the  propriety  of  this  distinction,  and  for  this 
reason,  that  the  woad  plant  has  to  go  through  a  fermentation 
process,  to  a  certain  extent,  before  it  is  put  into  casks  and  sent 
to  the  market,  &c.     (See  article,  Woad,  in  this  work.) 


WOAD. 

Woad  is  a  biennial  plant  (the  same  as  pastel),  called  by 
botanists  Isatis  iinctoria.  The  leaves  of  this  plant  have  a 
pungent  odor,  and  an  acrid  taste,  and  were  long  employed  for 
coloring  blue,  before  the  introduction  of  indigo  ;  and  when 
indigo  was  first  introduced  in  England  and  Germany,  about 
the  year  1G45,  only  a  very  small  amount  of  it  was  n)ixed  with 
the  woad.  Afterwards  a  greater  quantity  was  added,  and  by 
the  use  of  indigo,  the  farmers,  merchants,  and  others  in  Eng- 
land and  Germany  lost  a  i)roduction  by  which  they  had  be- 
come rich,  as,  after  the  introduction  of  indigo,  woad  was  not 
in  so  great  a  demand,  and  the  result  was,  a  prohibition  was 
first  issued  in  Saxony  against  the  use  of  indigo  (April,  1650), 
and  in  1(552,  Duke  Ernest  sent  a  proposal  to  the  Diet,  that 
indigo  should  be  totally  excluded  from  his  empire,  and  that 
the  exclusive  privilege  should  be  given  to  those  dyers  who 
used  the  woad,  without  indigo,  for  coloring  blue. 

"This  was  followed  by  an  imperial  prohibition  of  indigo,  on 


320  THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 

the  21st  of  April,  1654,  which  was  enforced  with  the  greatest 
severit}'  in  his  domains." 

"  The  same  was  done  in  France  ;  but  in  the  well-known  edict 
of  1660,  in  which  Colbert  separated  the  ^?ie  from  tha  comiiion 
dyers,  it  was  stated  that  indigo  should  be  used  without  woad, 
and  in  1737  dyers  were  left  at  liberty  to  use  indigo  alone,  or 
to  employ  a  mixture  of  indigo  and  woad." — Barlow. 

"We  will  abridge  from  "  Gibson's  System  and  Science  of 
Colors,"  his  remarks  upon  woad  :  "  This  plant,  which  when 
made  into  a  fermented  paste  is  called  woad,  has  been  used 
as  a  coloring  material  (either  to  stain  the  bodies  of  the  savage 
Britons,  or  to  color  the  garments  of  their  more  civilized 
descendants),  for  two  thousand  years,  and  the  accumulated 
experience  of  ages,  transmitted  from  fiither  to  son,  hath  given 
to  the  artisans  of  that  country  ji  mass  of  practical  information 
regarding  its  manufacture  and  mode'of  operation,  that  those  of 
no  other  nation  possess." 

"The  woad  plant  is  cultivated  in  England,  France,  Ger- 
many, and  other  European  States,  and  when  the  cultivator 
thinks  the  plant  is  sufficiently  matured,  it  is  cut,  then  ground 
into  a  pasty  mass,  which  is  piled  into  a  heap,  when,  after  a 
time,  heat  is  generated,  and  fermentation  commences,  with 
the  disengagement  of  ammoniacal  gas.  During  the  progress 
of  this  process,  the  heap  is  turned  or  worked  over,  sprinkled 
with  water  or  lime,  as  the  operator  thinks  best,  in  order  to 
regulate  the  temperature  of  generating  heat,  and  to  retard  or 
accelerate  the  fermentation,  as  the  case  may  be.", 

"This  operation  is  continued  at  intervals  for  two  or  three 
weeks,  according  to  the  state  of  the  weather,  and  other  cir- 
cumstances.    This  process  is  termed  couching." 

"Couched  woad,  differs  from  pastel  or  ball  woad,  inasmuch 
as  the  pastel  is  merely  the  ground  plant  made  up  into  balls, 
and  then  dried  in  an  open  shed,  Avithout  being  fermented  or 
couched,  as  above  described."  (See  article,  Pastel.)  "The 
process  of  couching  is  the  act  whereby  the  separate  and  dis- 
similar parts  of  the  plant  are  converted  into  a  coherent  and 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  321 

homogeneous  substance,  possessing  very  active  powers,  and  as 
the  operation  of  this  material  (now  called  woad)  is  the  cause 
to  which  we  must  look  for  all  the  phenomena  i)resented  by  the 
woad-vat,  we  should  inquire  into  the  nature  of  the  change 
that  has  taken  place,  or  ascertain  in  what  state  the  article 
exists." 

"  AVhen  the  recently  ground  plant  is  piled  in  a  heap,  and  the 
process  of  couching  has  commenced,  the  operation  that  is 
going  on  is  precisely  the  same  as  that  which  takes  place  in  a 
dung-hill  when  that  is  allowed  to  ferment." 

Chemists  divide  fermentation  into  three  classes  or  species  : 
first,  the  vinous;  second,  the  acetic;  and  third,  the  putrefac- 
tive fermentation.  The  vinous  fermentation  is  that  which  will 
convert  all  saccharine  substances  into  carbonic  acid  and  alco- 
hol. The  acetic  fermentation  is  that  which  will  convert  sugar 
or  alcohol  into  vinegar ;  and  the  putrefactive,  is  that  which 
converts  organic  substances  into  earthy  matters,  which  remain, 
and  into  inflammable  gases,  which  are  absorbed  by  the  atmos- 
phere. 

"  It  is  for  us  to  determine  whether  the  process  of  couching 
the  plant  belongs  to  any  of  the  species  mentioned  above,  or 
whether  it  does  not  constitute  a  fourth  species  or  state  of 
chemical  action,  which  has  not  been  examined  or  explained  by 
any  of  our  chemical  writers,  in  describing  the  phenomena  of 
fermentation." 

"  It  is  certain  that  it  is  not  the  vinous  action,  for  there  is  no 
carbonic  acid  given  off,  neither  is  there  any  alcohol  formed. 
It  is  positive  that  it  is  not  the  acetic,  there  being  no  produc- 
tion of  vinegar ;  and  it  is  not  the  putrefactive  process,  for  it 
neither  evolves  fetid  or  inflammable  gas,  nor  does  it  leave 
an  inert,  earthy  residuum,  but,  on  the  contrary,  it  exhales  a 
fragrant,  exhilarating  uninflammable  ammoniacal  vapor,  and 
the  remaining  substance  is  remarkable  for  its  energy." 

"These  facts  are  positive  evidence  that  it  differs  entirely 
from  and  does  not  belong  to  any  of  the  above  species  of  fer- 
mentation ;  that  its  products  are  not  similar,  nor  the  substance 

41 


322  THE    AMERICAX   DYER. 

like  an}'  of  the  three  ;  and  seeing  that  it  is  fermentation,  it 
must,  of  necessity,  constitutes  fourth  species,  whose  charac- 
ters are  as  well  defined,  and  whose  features  are  as  distinctly 
marked,  as  any  of  the  others,  and  it  devolves  upon  us  to  show 
what  these  characters  are,  in  order  to  assign  it  a  location  and 
jrive  it  a  name,  in  the  scale  of  fermentation." 

"  When  the  couching  process  of  the  woad  is  proceeding  in 
a  regular  manner,  a  great  quantity  of  amraoniacal  gas  is  evolved 
from  the  fermenting  mass,  and  all  the  tendencies  of  the  process 
are  to  the  production  of  alkaline  properties,  and  this  continues 
until  the  process  ceases,  when  the  remaining  substance  (now 
woad,  still  exhaling  ammonia),  retains  very  energetic  quali- 
ties, which  continually  produce  fresh  alkali.  Therefore,  we 
define  these  energies,  from  the  nature  of  their  products,  the 
alkaline  state  of  fermentation." 

"Such,  then,  is  the  nature  of  the  process  of  couching  (and 
also  of  the  proper  fermentation  of  dung),  for  the  products 
and  energies  at  work  are  identical,  in  both  cases.  As  we  shall 
show  in  the  sequel,  the  alcoholic  and  acetic  kinds  of  fer- 
mentation, both  pass  into  the  alkaline  species,  before  running 
to  putrefaction.  This  circumstance  marks  out  the  position 
which  the  alkaline  process  occupies,  as  the  one  immediately 
preceding  the  putrefactive  state,  or  that  particular  act  which 
completes  the  entire  destruction  of  the  matter  subjected  to 
fermentation." 

"And  as  the  alkaline  process  approaches  so  near  to  the 
putrefactive  (there  being  but  a  step  between  it  and  destruc- 
tion), this  shows  the  great  skill  and  care  that  are  required  in 
the  workman  to  prevent  such  a  catastrophe.  Hence  the  diffi- 
culty experienced  in  the  working  of  woad-vats  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at." 

"We  will  now  describe  the  marketable  qualities  of  woad, 
so  as  to  enable  the  dyer  to  make  a  judicious  choice  of  such 
specimens  as  are  good  and  safe  to  work.  There  are  three 
general  appearances  of  cask  woad,  only,  that  we  shall  notice  : 
the   brown    or   fox}',    the    dark-colored   and    muddy-formed 


THE    AMERICAX    DYER.  ;]23 

woad,  and  the  fine  olive-green  colored  and  fragrant-smelling 
woad." 

"The  best  woad  is  of  a  green-olive  color,  interspersed  with 
parts  of  a  browner  appearance.  It  is  rather  tough  and  adhe- 
rent, than  otherwise.  When  a  piece  of  it  is  broken  open,  it 
shows  fine  silky  filaments  of  considerable  tenacity.  It  has  an 
agreeable  and  sweetish  ammoniacal  odor,  and  when  mixed  with 
water,  it  does  not  very  easily  dissolve  or  fall  apart,  but  has  a 
doughv  touirhness,  and  requires  considerable  slirrinir  to  con- 
vert  it  into  a  light,  pulpy  substance.  When  so  dissolved,  its 
soluble  portion  imparts  to  water  a  deep  brown  color,  iucliniug 
to  olive,  and  the  liquor  has  considerable  substance  or  body." 

"These  are  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  good  woad, 
and  show  that  the  couching  has  been  properly  conducted." 

"  The  brown  or  foxy  woad  diifers  in  appearance  from  the 
preceding  description,  chiefly  in  color,  which  is  redder,  or 
more  of  a  decided  brown.  It  has  a  stron<i;er  and  less  ajj^reea- 
ble  odor ;  in  other  respects  it  answers  the  description  of  the 
greener,  or  more  olive  kind,  if  the  article  is  good." 

"A  first-rate  foxy  or  brown  woad  is  much  stronger  than  the 
one  described  as  the  best  kind,  but  it  is  a  very  difficult  woad  to 
work,  as  it  comes  on  or  springs  in  so  rapid  a  manner,  that  it 
requires  more  watchfulness  and  skill  to  I)ring  it  into  good 
working  order,  than  it  requires  for  the  other  kind  of  woad  ; 
and,  moreover,  it  requires  a  larger  amount  of  ware,  and  as 
its  fermenting  powers  are  so  strong,  it  will  take  sudden 
plunges  of  violent  fermentation,  requiring  considerable  skill 
to  overcome  ;  therefore,  this  kind  of  woad  is  very  unsafe  in 
the  hands  of  an  inexperienced  dyer :  but  when  it  is  once 
fairly  brought  under  subjection,  it  will  execute  better  work 
than  the  other  kind,  and  on  this  account,  for  our  own  use,  it 
is  preferable." 

''The  great  cause  of  the  impetuosity  of  this  woad  is  owing 
to  its  not  having  been  fermented  enough  in  the  process  of 
couching,  and  its  red  color  may  possil)ly  arise  from  the  plant 
being  too  ripe  when  it  was  gathered." 


324  THE    AMEllICAX    DYER. 

"  We  must  now  caution  purchasers  against  the  worst  and 
most  worthless  kind  of  woad,  which  we  find  sometimes  in  the 
market.  It  is  a  heavy,  lifeless,  dark  mud-like  article,  and  is 
in  the  state  of  paste,  very  mobile,  having  little  or  no  adher- 
ence in  its  parts,  or  possessing  any  tenacity,  and  does  not 
hold  together,  but  breaks  off  without  any  filamentary  or 
fibrous  appearance.  It  is  short  and  earthy,  and  its  odor  is 
similar  to  that  of  dock-mud." 

"On  being  thrown  into  the  hot  water  in  the  vat,  it  easily 
falls  apart,  and  requires  little  if  any  raking.  The  appearance 
of  the  liquor  formed  l)y  it  is  gray-colored,  wavy,  glistening 
or  shining  as  though  it  was  greasy,  looking  like  strong,  dirty 
soap-water." 

"  The  odor  of  this  liquor  is  vapid  ;  it  operates  fitfully,  some- 
times it  springs  itself  quickly,  at  other  times  it  comes  reluc- 
tantly to  work;  but  what  distinguishes  it  most  is,  that  after 
working  feebly  for  a  certain,  but  short  time,  it  suddenly,  and 
without  any  assignable  cause,  ceases  to  operate  ;  the  indigo 
precipitates,  the  liquor  becomes  thin,  odorless  and  flat,  and 
no  common  means  have  the  least  eflect  by  way  of  imparting 
energy  to  the  materials  of  the  vat." 

"The  cause  of  the  bad  efiects  of  this  kind  of  woad  is,  that 
in  the  process  of  couching  it  has  suffered  too  great  a  degree 
of  heat,  and  the  greater  part  of  it  had  passed  into  the  putre- 
factive state,  and  very  little  fermenting  power  remained  in 
that  which  was  uncontaminated  by  it." 

"The  good  or  bad  qualities  of  woad  do  not  depend  so  much 
upon  the  country  that  produces  it,  as  upon  the  care  and  skill 
exercised  in  manufacturing  it.  And  the  difference,  both  in 
the  mode  of  operating  and  in  the  price  of  English  and  Amer- 
ican woad,  is  entirely  owing  to  the  latter  circumstance,  for 
w'e  can  speak  from  long  acquaintance  with  the  two,  that  the 
quality  of  strength  is  decidedly  in  favor  of  the  American 
woad." 

"  We  will  now  take  into  consideration  that  operation  of 
woad  which  makes  it  such  an  important  article  in  the  compo- 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  325 

sition  of  the  woad-vat ;  viz.,  the  fermentiition  of  wo.-ul  in  the 
bUie-vat." 

"But  before  proceeding  it  will  be  necessary  to  give  a  slight 
outline  of  fermentation  in  general,  of  which  genus  the  opera- 
tion of  working  a  woad-vat  is  a  species.  This  descri^jtion 
appears  to  be  requisite,  to  enable  the  operator  to  understand 
the  nature  of  the  intestine  action  going  o,n  among  the  materi- 
als of  the  vat." 

"Fermentation  is  a  spontaneous  effcn't  of  the  ultimate  con- 
stituents of  matter  to  change  their  state,  and  enter  into  dif- 
ferent combinations  or  forms;  and  this  action  is  independent 
of,  and  distinct  from,  those  simple  affinities  that  dispose  acids 
and  alkalies  to  unite  so  as  to  form  salts,  and  does  not  depend 
upon  antagonistic  principles  mutually  exerting  their  forces  upon 
each  other,  giving  birth  to  inert  compounds,  possessing  no 
particular  properties  ;  but  it  is,  in  the  abstract,  a  true  com- 
bustion. Though  silently  and  invisibly  performed,  it  is  na- 
ture's method  of  analysis,  whereby  compound  and  heteroge- 
neous bodies  are  decomposed  and  resolved  into  simpler  forms 
of  matter,  a  process  that  attenuates  and  disperses  substances, 
causing  the  solid  to  become  fluid,  or  the  fluid  to  assume  the 
gaseous  form.  It  is  that  operation  which  performs,  in  the 
same  order,  but  in  a  slower  manner,  all  the  agencies  of  tire  ; 
first  driving  off"  the  most  volatile  parts,  next  attacking  the 
liquids,  and  converting  them  into  gases,  it  disperses  these  in 
like  manner ;  and  tinally,  the  more  solid  parts  imdergo  a  sim- 
ilar change,  and  are  ultimately  dissipated,  until  nothing  remains 
but  the  incombustible  and  intractable  earths,  or  metallic 
oxides.  Therefore,  all  the  tendencies  of  the  process  of  fer- 
mentation, from  its  commencement  in  the  alcoholic  stage,  to 
its  final  cessation  in  the  putrefactive,  are  to  what  we  call  de- 
struction, or,  more  correctly  speaking,  to  the  entire  separation 
and  dispersion  of  the  combustible  constituents  of  the  matters 
subject  to  its  action  ;  and  so  progressive  and  effectual  is  this 
dissolution,  that  no  calorific  influence,  however  powerful, 
could  have  accomplished  it  more  certainly ;  for  it  does,  when 


326  THE    AMEKICAX   DYER. 

suffered  to  pass  through  its  diffcreut  stages,  produce  exactly 
the  same  results  as  destructive  distillation." 

"Wherefore,  reasoning  from  a  similarity  of  results  in  the 
two  cases,  we  have  to  concede  that  the  passage  of  what  we 
designate  as  caloric,  or  heat,  into  the  body  of  the  materials 
subjected  to  fermentation,  is  the  cause  of  the  effects  we  per- 
ceive, arising  from  that  process  ;  and  although  the  sensible 
heat  of  the  fermenting  body  may  not,  in  many  instances, 
exceed  the  temperature  of  the  human  frame,  yet  this  is  no 
proof  that  as  great  an  amount  or  degree  of  heat  has  not 
passed  through  the  fermenting  mass,  to  effect  its  complete 
decomposition,  as  it  would  have  done  had  it  been  exposed  to 
the  direct  action  of  fire,  in  a  retort,  by  the  process  of  de- 
structive distillation,  because  the  fermenting  mass  obtains  its 
caloric  only  by  its  own  intestine  motion,  and  from  an  internal 
source,  and  this  being  carried  off  as  fast  as  it  is  generated,  by 
the  amount  of  vapors  or  gases  to  which  it  has  given  elasticity, 
is  kept  comparatively  cool,  while  the  matter  subjected  to  de- 
structive distillation,  being  supplied  with  its  caloric  from  an 
external  source,  and  as  it  continually  receives  fresh  increments 
of  heat,  in  greater  quantity  than  can  be  carried  off  by  the 
ejected  gases,  it  possesses,  in  consequence,  an  elevated 
temperature." 

"We  assert,  that  no  more  heat  or  caloric  has  been  taken 
up  by  the  matter  exposed  to  destructive  distillation,  in  order 
to  dissipate  its  constituents,  than  there  has  been  required  to 
disperse,  in  like  manner,  the  gaseous  products  of  common 
fermentation  ;  for  it  requires  only  a  certain  quantity  of  heat 
to  maintain  matter  in  a  certain  state  (whether  solid,  liquid,  or 
aeriform),  and  when  that  specific  quantity  has  passed  into  it, 
it  admits  of  no  further  addition  ;  in  other  words,  the  capacity 
of  bodies  for  heat  is  limited  by  the  nature  of  their  constitu- 
tion." 

"If,  then,  so  great  an  amount  of  caloric  has  been  required 
to  change  the  form  of  the  fermenting  matter,  and  if  it  has 
received  none   from   any  external  source,   the  question  wnll 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  327 

naturally  suggest  itself,  wheuce  came  this  heat,  or,  h(nv  did 
it  originate?" 

"In  answering  it,  we  will  proceed  on  the  data,  that  the 
universal  presence  of  electricity,  or  the  galvanoid  fluid,  is 
the  all-pervading,  all-surrounding  force,  quality  or  power, 
that  penetrates  and  envelopes  every  partible  of  matter,  how- 
ever or  wherever  situated  ;  it  is  an  atmosphere  or  medium 
extending  through  and  beyond  all  systems  and  worlds,  pos- 
sessing an  all-present  existence,  in  which  all  material  nature  is 
immersed  ;  it  is  that  principle  by  which  the  several  elements 
of  matter,  having  different  capacities,  assume,  by  the  force  of 
its  powers,  different  volumes,  and  by  it  retain  their  separate 
existences ;  it  is  that  imponderable  cause  which  shines  in 
the  light,  warms  in  the  heat,  and  lives  as  the  life  of  all  things." 

"To  this  inexhaustible  source  of  effects,  we  are  to  look  for 
the  cause  of  fermentation,  by  understanding  that  the  action 
of  this  principle  upon  the  several  elements  of  nature,  in 
causing  them  to  assume  different  forms,  shapes  or  combina- 
tions, is  sufficient  to  account  for  all  the  phenomena  by  that 
process." 

"The  presence  of  electricity  everywhere;  the  various 
capacities  or  attractions  of  bodies  for  it,  and  its  continual  ten- 
dency to  an  equal  distribution  of  its  power,  or  an  inclination 
to  find  a  level  or  equilibrium,  make  it  the  ever-active  and 
all-controlling  agent  in  the  operations  of  nature." 

"That  this  imponderable  element  exists  in  all  bodies,  and 
that  its  greater  or  less  amount  in  any  particular  body,  deter- 
mines the  existence  of  that  body,  as  a  solid,  a  liquid,  or  a 
gas,  and  that  the  sensation  which  we  call  heat,  and  to  which 
it  is  customary  to  attribute  these  effects,. is  nothing  more  than 
a  result,  or  mere  sensation,  whereby  we  perceive  or  expe- 
rience the  passage  of  this  element  from  one  substance  to 
another,  as  it  resumes  that  equilibrium,  which  had  been  dis- 
turbed by  the  unequal  affinity  of  the  different  species  of  mat- 
ter for  it ;  and  as  this  passage  is  more  or  less  rapid,  or  in 
greater  or  smaller  quantity,  so  is  the  degree  of  heat  or  sensa- 


328  THE   A3IERICA^   DYER. 

tion  excited,  more  or  less  acute  or  intense ;  until,  finally, 
when  this  change  is  eflected  in  large  quantities,  and  with 
great  velocity,  light  is  evolved,  or  the  property  of  shining  is 
coimnunicated  to  bodies  through  which  this  energy  is  passing." 

"  Therefore,  heat  and  light  have  no  existence,  independent 
of  electrical  (or  galvanic)  changes,  and  they  are  not  matter 
in  any  of  its  species  or  forms,  but  simply  sensible  perceptions, 
or  visible  manifestations  to  us  of  changes  taking  place  in  mat- 
ter, by  the  operation  of  an  energetic  power ;  they  are  only 
effects  of  a  prior  and  greater  cause — simple  results  flowing 
from  velocity  of  motion — mere  sensations  of  vibrations  among 
ultimate  particles." 

"And  although  both  light  and  heat  can  and  do  exist,  sepa- 
rately, distinctlv,  and  independently  of  each  other,  and  one 
is  perceived  when  the  other  is  not  present ;  yet  can  this 
seeming  irregularily  of  the  violent  passage  of  the  electrical 
power,  producing  simultaneously  both  light  and  heat,  be  re- 
conciled, on  the  idea  of  the  peculiar  nature  that  some  bodies 
or  substances  inherit  to  throw  ofi"  both  light  and  heat,  and 
other  bodies  only  inherit  but  one  of  these  sensations." 

"All  the  effects  which  are  attributed  to  light  and  heat  could 
be  accounted  for  on  tlie  above  theory,  were  we  giving  a 
dissertation  upon  the  phenomena  of  light  and  heat,  instead  of 
an  inquiry  into  the  cause  of  fermentation  ;  yet  the  nature  of 
the  inquiry,  has  unavoidabh'  led  to  observations  respecting 
them,  and  although  irreleveut  to  the  subject,  they  were 
necessary  to  illustrate  it  more  clearly,  and  to  enable  us  to 
draw  the  line  of  distinction  between  cause  and  effect." 

"Seeing,  then,  that  an  atmosphere  of  electricity  surrounds 
the  heterogeneous  mass  when  first  placed  together  for  fer- 
mentation, and  that  its  equilibrium  is  constantly  disturbed  by 
the  changes  going  on  through  all  nature,  it  is  evident  that  a 
discordant  mixture  (of  diflerent  principles)  cannot  long  re- 
main without  changing,  but  that  a  spontaneous  change  will 
take  place  in  consequence  of  the  dissimilar  capacities  of  the 
several  substances  (contained  in  the  mixture)  for  electricity. 


THE    AMEIUCAN   DYEK.  329 

"This  change  or  motion  gives  rise  to  the  sensation,  heat; 
the  temperature  of  the  mass  rises,  and  the  electric  power 
or  fluid  (or  whatever  other  phrase  we  might  use)  combining 
to  saturation  with  its  most  susceptible  parts,  carries  them  oflf 
in  volatile  products  ;  and  as  the  fermenting  substance  is  con- 
tinually drawing  oli'  the  electricity  from  external  nature,  with 
which  it  is  in  contact,  and  as  every  moment  renders  ijt  more  and 
more  dissimilar  in  its  composition  or  capacity  for  this  power, 
the  rapidity  of  the  motion  becomes  more  and  more  energetic, 
until,  as  it  passes  with  increasing  velocity  through  its  different 
stages,  the  action  becomes  (in  some  cases)  so  violent  and 
intense  as  to  set  tire  to  the  mass." 

"  Hence  the  great  difficult  of  stopping  or  retaining  the 
fermentation,  at  any  desired  point,  increases  with  the  progress 
of  the  fermentation. 

"If  we  agree  with  the  observations  herein  expressed,  we 
must  admit  that  electricity  is  the  exciting  cause  of  all  the 
changes  that  take  place  in  fermentation,  as  are  all  the  differ- 
ent changes  in  nature  due  to  electricity." 

We.  will  now  proceed  to  describe  fermentation  in  its  several 
or  different  species  and  stages  of  its  progress. 

"  It  has  been  shown  that  the  exciting  cause  of  fermentation 
is  due  to  electricity,  and  we  have  also  seen  that  the  whole 
tendency  of  fermentation,  from  its  commencement  to  its 
close,  was  to  decompose  and  dissipate  the  constituents  of  the 
substance  exposed  to  the  operation  of  fermentation  ;  and  that 
in  this  process  towards  destruction  it  gives  rise  to  different 
products,  which,  by  the  distinctness  of  their  characters,  serve 
as  criteria  of  the  several  stages  of  the  process,  and  point  out 
to  us  just  how  far  the  operation  has  advanced  towards  its  final 
accomplishment. 

"  These  different  stages  are  termed  species  of  fermentation  ; 
but  none  of  them  can  occur  in  an  uncombustible  body.  As 
fermentation  is  an  actual,  though  invisible  combustion,  its 
phenomena  can  only  be  exhibited  among  combustible  materials, 

42 


330  THE    AMERICAX   DYER. 

or  in  such  bodies  as  have  the  power  of  taking  the  gaseous 
state." 

"We  have  termed  the  different  species  or  kinds  of  fer- 
mentation spoken  of  in  this  article,  from  their  different 
characteristics,  the  alcoholic,  th(?  acetic,  the  alkaline,  and  the 
putrefactive  states  of  fermentation  ;  and  as  vegetable  matters 
are  composed  chiefly  of  carbon,  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  with 
occasionally  nitrogen,  interspersed  sometimes  (as  in  woad, 
&c.)  with  foreign  substances,  this  knowledge  of  the  consti- 
tution of  matters  undergoing  fermentation,  and  the  chemical 
properties  of  their  products,  will  enable  us  to  comprehend 
what  particular  principles  remain  in  the  fermenting  mass,  at 
each  and  every  stage  of  its  progress,  and  what  kind  have 
been  separated  from  it ;  it  also  explains  the  reason  why,  iu 
some  cases,  the  fermentation  should  commence  with  the  first 
stage,  or  why  it  should,  iu  other  cases,  commence  at  the 
second,  third,  or  even  the  last  stage,  without  having  passed 
through  the  preceding  ones." 

"As  the  changes  produced  by  fermentation  can  only  be 
fresh  arrangements  of  the  above-named  few  principles,  the 
proportions  in  which  these  exist  in  the  mass  will  determine 
what  state  of  fermentation  shall  first  commence  (though  this 
is  liable  to  some  modification  from  the  state  of  the  atmos- 
phere and  other  circumstances)  :  — 

"First.  For  instance,  when  the  constituents  are  fn  the  pro- 
portions of  4  carbon,  3  ox3'gen,  2  hydrogen,  and  1  nitrogen, 
the  fermentation  will  commence  in  the  alcoholic  state." 

"  Second.  When  the  oxygen  is  iu  excess  over  the  carbon, 
or  when  the  proportions  are  4  oxygen,  3  carbon,  2  hydrogen, 
and  1  nitrogen,  then  alcohol  cannot  be  formed,  because  the 
excess  of  oxygen  acidifies  the  product  and  gives  rise  to  the 
acetic  fermentation." 

"Third.  AVhen  the  fermenting  body  contains  little  carbon 
or  oxygen,  compared  with  its  hydrogen  or  nitrogen,  —  or 
reverse  the  proportions,  and  we  have  4  hydrogen,  3  nitrogen, 
2  carbon,  and  2  oxygen,  —  iu  this  case  the  greater  proportion 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  331 

of  the  constituents  arc  such  as   compose  ammonia  and   the 
alkaline  fermentation  must,  of  necessity,  commence  lirst." 

"Fourth.  And  when  the  proportions  are  4  nitrogen,  3 
hydrogen,  2  oxygen,  and  1  carbon,  it  is  plain  that  the  pre- 
ponderating principles  are  all  of  an  elastic  character,  and  the 
least  amount  of  electricity  (or  heat)  goes  to  dissipate  them  in 
noxious  vapors  characteristic  of  putrefaction." 

"When  the  constituents  (or  substances)  are  put  together  in 
the  first-named  proportions,  the  effect  of  the  fermentation  Avill 
be  to  carry  off  a  portion  of  the  carbon  and  oxygen,  as  car- 
bonic acid,  which  will  leave  the  remainder  in  the  proportions 
that  form  alcohol  :  but  as  alcohol  does  not  contain  as  much 
oxygen  as  acetic  acid,  it  is  evident  that  a  re-action  is  neces- 
sary or  an  absorption  of  oxygen  must  take  place  by  the  alco- 
hol before  that  can  be  converted  into  acid  or  exhibit  acetic 
fermentation." 

(Here  we  see  the  necessity  of  taking  out  the  bungs  from 
cider  and  wine  barrels  when  we  wish  to  make  vinegar.) 

"  Acetic  acid  is  nothing  more  or  less  than  oxidized 
alcohol." 

"In  the  third  case,  the  effect  of  the  alkaline  fermentation  is 
to  carry  off  another  portion  of  the  carbon  and  oxygen  (wdiich 
are  constituents  in  both  alcohol  and  acetic  acid),  and  leave 
the  hydrogen  iind  nitrogen  to  enter  into  combination  as  am- 
monia." 

"And,  lastly,  on  the  evaporation  of  the  ammonia,  the  re- 
maining nitrogen,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  carbon  (being  a 
surplus  of  the  constituents  more  than  was  necessary  to  form 
all  the  products  of  the  other  three  species  of  fermentation), 
now  form  compounds  with  the  phosphorus  and  sulphur  (if 
there  is  any  present  in  the  fermenting  article)  and  give  rise  to 
phosphoretted,  sulphuretted,  and  carburetted  hydrogen,  and 
other  nauseous  and  inflammable  gases,  that  characterize  the 
putrefactive  process,  which  completes  the  separation  of  all 
combustible    materials   from   the   substance    undergoing  fer- 


332  THE    AMERICAX   DYER. 

mentation  ;  the  operation  is  at  an  end  and  the  disorganization 
of  the  substances  completed." 

"We  have  seen  that  the  alcoholic,  acetic,  alkaline,  and 
putrefactive  kinds  of  fermentation,  under  certain  circum- 
stances, run,  in  succession,  from  the  first  to  the  last  stage; 
every  stage  being  distinctly  separated  and  known  from  the 
other  by  the  phenomena  peculiar  to  it." 

"And  although  all  fermentation  tends  towards,  and  ulti- 
mately ends  in  the  putrefactive  process  (unless  it  is  checked), 
yet  any  of  the  stages  of  fermentation,  by  proper  manipula- 
tions, can  be  caused  to  remain  in  that  particular  stage,  and 
be  preserved  in  that  state  as  a  separate  species,  and  its  further 
progress  stopped." 

"But  it  does  not  follow  that,  in  order  to  produce  any  par- 
ticular species  of  fermentation,  we  should  go  through  the 
other  stages  that  precede  it ;  for  although  they  are  in  some 
measure  connected  together,  still  they  are  each  independent  of 
the  other ;  as  the  proportions  of  simple  principles  in  the  mass 
must  be  various  to  give  rise  to  the  different  kinds  of  fermen- 
tation, and  the  putrefactive  state  can  commence  at  once,' 
without  necessarily  passing  through  any  of  the  others ;  the 
alkaline  can  also  begin  without  the  least  indication  of  there 
ever  having  been  either  acetic  or  alcoholic  fermentation, — 
and  the  acid  or  acetic  process  can  commence  without  any 
previous  formation  of  alcohol.  If  we  should  commence  with 
the  alcoholic  fermentation,  we  can  carry  the  process  through 
to  its  end,  through  the  acetic,  alkaline,  and  putrefactive 
stages  ;  if  we  commence  with  the  acetic,  we  can  pass  through 
the  akaline  and  the  putreftictive  processes  ;  and  by  beginning 
with  the  alkaline,  we  can  continue  it  through  the  putrefiic- 
tive.  But  if  the  putrid  fermentation  should  commence  first, 
none  of  the  other  stages  can  be  elicited,  because  destruction 
has  commenced  at  once,  and  all  the  combustible  materials  of 
the  mass  are  separated,  one  from  the  other,  and  the  whole  is 
entirely  dissipated." 

"When  fermentation  has  arrived  at  a  certain  stage,  it  may 


THE    AMERICANS"    DYER.  333 

progress  towards  its  final  consummation,  but  cannot  retro- 
grade in  its  action  ;  therefore  the  alkaline  state  may  pa.ss  into 
the  putrefactive,  but  not  back  into  the  acetic  or  alcoholic 
stages,  and  the  acetic  may  go  through  the  alkaline  and  putre- 
factive processes,  but  cannot  be  brought  back  again  to  the 
alcoholic  species  of  fermentation  ;  the  tendencies  of  every 
species  of  fermentation  will  aid  it  on  until  all  the  substances 
that  compose  the  mass  are  driven  off,  and  there  is  nothing  left 
except  such  matters  as  are  incapable  of  taking  the  aeriform 
state." 

"This  general  description  of  fermentation,  its  different 
species  or  stages,  and  the  mode  of  its  operation,  has  been 
given  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  us  to  understand  more 
clearly  respecting  the  alkaline  species  of  fermentation,  or  the 
operation  of  woad  when  in  a  blue-vat." 

"It  has  been  shown,  in  the  description  of  couching  or  the- 
curing  of  the  woad,  that  it  was  brought  by  that  process  into 
such  a  state  as  to  have  a  continual  tendency  to  the  production 
of  ammonia,  or  into  a  substance  whose  fermentation  com- 
mences in  the  alkaline  stage." 

"The  soluble  substances  that  are  contained  in  woad,  are  mostly 
mucilaginous  and  extractive  matter,  albumen  and  a  little  sac- 
charine matter;  the  albumen  furnishes  (independent  of 
absorption  from  the  atmosphere)  the  nitrogen  which  is  neces- 
sary for  the  formation  of  ammonia,  which  it  creates  and 
evolves  during  its  fermentation.  The  water  in  the  vat  beins 
heated  to  170°  Fahr.,  and  woad,  madder,  bran,  lime  and 
indigo  now  added,  in  the  course  of  ten  or  fifteen  hours 
afterwards,  we  perceive  that  a  chemical  change  is  taking  place, 
by  the  appearance  of  the  solution,  which  indicates  that  the 
operation  of  the  materials  has  commenced." 

"It  is  to  ascertain  what  part  each  of  the  above  materials 
performs,  and  what  is  the  nature  of  the  operation,  which  we 
must  now  consider.  In  the  first  place,  the  object  in  view  is 
the  solution  of  the  indigo  after  the  vat  is  put  together;  there- 
fore, the  indigo  is  the  one  to  be  operated  upon  by  the  other 


334  THE   AMERICAN    DYER. 

ingredients  of  the  vat.  "We  have  shown,  in  describing  the  set- 
ting and  working  of  the  woad-vat,  that  in  order  to  effect  the 
sohition  of  the  indigo,  it  was  necessary  first  to  bring  it  into  a 
lower  state  of  oxidation,  and  then  an  alkali  must  be  present 
before  the  indigo  would  dissolve  in  water." 

"The  most  important  functions  of  the  vat  are  to  absorb 
oxygen  and  produce  alkali;  and  as  the  proportions  of  the 
ultimate  constituents  of  woad  will  be  as  four  hydrogen,  three 
nitrogen,  two  carbon,  one  oxygen  (as  in  the  alkaline  stage), 
all  in  a  free  or  uncombined  state,  and  carbon  having  a  strong- 
er affinity  for  oxygen  than  for  any  other  substance,  hydrogen 
and  nitrogen  being  also  inclined  to  unite,  the  etfoct  of  these 
compound  affinities  will  be  to  produce,  simultaneously,  car- 
bonic acid  and  ammonia ;  but  as  the  proportion  of  carbon 
exceeds  the  oxygen  (in  the  woad),  and  the  indigo,  hold- 
ing oxygen  b}-  a  weaker  affinity,  gives  it  up  to  the  carbon 
(creating  carbonic  acid),  the  indigo  is  deoxidized  and 
will  now  dissolve  in  alkali ;  but  as  the  ammonia  and  carbonic 
acid  thus  formed  must,  from  their  natures,  reciprocally 
neutralize  each  other,  and  create  a  carbonate  of  ammonia, 
and  as  deoxidized  indigo  will  not  dissolve  in  the  solution  of  a 
neutral  salt,  we  must  then  in  some  manner  destroy  the  car- 
bonic acid  before  we  can  avail  ourselves  of  the  alkaline  prop- 
erties of  the  ammonia  as  a  solvent  of  the  indigo.  To  effect 
this  object  we  add  slack  lime  (ware)  which  will  immediately 
unite  with  the  carbonic  acid,  and  then  both  are  precipitated 
as  an  insoluble  carbonate  of  lime,  the  ammonia  is  liberated, 
and  the  indigo  will  now  dissolve  in  it." 

"If  we  were  to  put  nothing  into  the  vat,  except  indigo  and 
woad,  it  would,  in  time,  assume  its  functions  of  deoxidizing 
and  dissolving  indigo ;  but  in  order  to  facilitate  and  give 
greater  force  or  energy  to  the  fermentation,  bran  and  madder 
are  added  ;  as  these  substances  furnish  it  with  considerable  sac- 
charine and  farinaceous  matter,  they  may  be  considered  as  given 
for  the  same  reason  as  yeast  is  added  to  a  solution  of  sugar, 
in  order  to  bring  on  the  fermentation  of  the  materials  in  all 


THE    AMERICAN^   DYER.  335 

their  parts  at  once.  Therefore  when  a  woad-vat  is  first  put 
together  in  the  usual  manner,  the  process  commences  with 
the  alcoholic  fermentation  of  the  sweet  matters  in  the  madder, 
bran  and  woad,  which  deoxidizes  the  indigo,  and  forms  car- 
bonic acid  ;  when,  at  the  same  time,  the  woad  yields  ammo- 
nia;  but  as  this  acid  and  alkali  rapidly  unite,  and  form  a  salt 
that  will  not  dissolve  indigo,  and  as  at  the  commencement,  the 
amount  of  carbonic  acid  formed  is  greater  than  the  ammonia,  a 
portion  of  lime  is  necessary  to  saturate  the  carbonic  acid,  then 
the  ammonia  becoming  free,  will  now  dissolve  a  portion  of  the 
deoxidized  indigo.  The  process  now  proceeds  as  before ; 
then,  after  a  while,  the  carbonic  acid  will  again  obtain  the 
ascendancy  over  the  alkali  ;  then  another  portion  of  lime  is 
required  to  form  ammonia,  and  some  more  indigo  is  then  dis- 
solved, so  this  alternate  waiting  for  the  formation  of  carbonic 
acid  and  serving  with  lime,  is  persevered  in  until  the  produc- 
tion of  acid  and  alkali  are  balanced,  and  the  whole  indio'o  is 
brought  into  solution." 

"  If  at  any  of  these  servings  of  lime  we  should  give  too 
large  an  amount  of  lime,  or  before  the  formation  of  any  car- 
bonic acid,  we  would  then  throw  the  vat  back,  and  arrest  the 
further  progress  of  fermentation  ;  in  this  case,  we  must  give 
the  vat  madder  and  bran,  in  order  to  excite  the  fermentation, 
or  else  we  must  wait  until  the  natural  vigor  of  the  woad  will 
again  promote  fermentation  ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  should 
we  neglect  to  give  the  vat  lime  at  the  right  time,  then  the 
carbonic  acid  will  overpower  the  volitile  alkali,  and  if  allowed 
to  proceed  in  this  state,  the  ammoniacal  odor  will  cease,  the 
indigo  precipitates,  and  the  vat  is  in  danger.  But  when  the 
process  of  setting  the  vat  has  been  properly  conducted,  and 
is  fairly  balanced,  and  all  the  indigo  is  brought  into  solution, 
then  the  operation  of  dyeing  can  be  commenced." 

"Yet,  furthermore,  as  by  dyeing  in  the  vat,  the  liquor  be- 
comes exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  and  in  consequence,  a  quan- 
tity of  ox3'gen  is  absorbed  by  the  indigo,  which  imparts  it  to 
the  carbon  of  the  woad,  giving  rise  to  a  quantity  of  carbonic 


336  .      THE    AMERICAN   DYEE. 

acid,  that  requires  a  portion  of  lime  for  its  saturation;  it  is, 
therefore,  necessary  to  serve  with  lime  after  every  day's 
coloring." 

"But  should,  we  in  serving  daily  with  lime,  overcharge  it, 
the  deoxidation  of  the  indigo  will  cease,  as  the  surcharge  of 
ware  prevents  the  formation  of  carbonic  acid  ;  the  ammoniacal 
odor  becomes  more  caustic;  the  liquor  is  darker  colored  ;  the 
bottom  (that  is,  the  woad)  is  blackened  with  the  precipitated 
indigo,  and  feels  heavier  and  tougher  to  rake  up,  and  the 
color  given  by  the  vat  is  a  gray,  feeble-looking  shade  ;  the  vat 
is  now  what  dyers  term  full  up  with  her  ware,  or  is  hard.  If 
by  repeated  surcharges  the  vat  has  become  so  hard  that  it 
will  not  color,  (and  if  it  is  carried  to  the  greatest  extent),  all 
the  indigo  is  precipitated  ;  the  ammonia  has  evaporated  ;  the 
odor  is  that  of  recently  slacked  lime  ;  the  alkaline  fermenta- 
tion, and  the  production  of  carbonic  acid,  have  ceased;  and 
the  bottom  is  black,  solid,  and  tough.  When  a  vat  has  got 
into  such  a  condition,  it  requires  a  large  amount  of  madder 
and  bran  to  neutralize  the  excess  of  lime,  in  order  to  raise  up 
the  fermentation  again.  And,  on  the  other  hand,  if  by  negli- 
gence in  our  daily  serving  the  vat,  we  should  leave  it  short 
of  the  necessary  amount  of  lime  required  to  saturate  the  daily 
production  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  vat,  then  the  ammonia  will 
be  gradually  overpowered  ;  it  will  color  wool  a  pale  greenish- 
yellow,  which  will  not  become  a  distinct  blue  by  exposure  to 
the  atmosphere.  The  odor  of  the  liquor  is  at  first  soft  and 
sweetish,  then  vapid  and  flat ;  the  liquor  and  the  sediment  are 
greenish,  or  light  colored,  and  are  buoyant  and  loose.  The  vat 
in  this  condition,  is  in  a  critical  situation,  and  must  be  served 
with  ware  as  soon  as  possible,  to  prevent  its  passing  suddenly 
into  the  putrefactive  state  of  fermentation." 

"  Such  are  the  explanations  in  regard  to  the  phenomena  of  a 
woad-vat,  and  can  be  briefly  summed  up  as  follows  : — 

"First.  That  the  intention  in  using  woad,  madder,  bran, 
and  lime,  in  a  vat,  is  to  efl'ect  the  solution  of  the  indigo  in 
water." 


THE   AMEltlCAN   DYER.  337 

• 

"  Second.  That  the  madder  and  bran  act  as  a  ferment,  and 
excite  fermentation." 

"Third.  That  the  fermentation  of  woad  is  a  double  opera- 
tion, producing  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia,  which,  uniting, 
form  carbonate  of  ammonia;  while,  as  carbonic  acid  forms, 
the  indigo  is  deoxidized." 

"Fourth.  That  the  lime  decomposes  the  carbonate  of  am- 
monia, precipitating  the  carbonic  acid,  and  leaving  the 
ammonia  free,  when  the  deoxidized  indigo  is  dissolved  in  it." 

"As  the  formation  of  carbonic  acid  is  necessary  to  the  de- 
oxidation  of  the  indigo,  and  the  presence  of  ammonia  is 
required  for  its  solution,  it  is  indispensable  to  precipitate  the 
former,  in  order  to  give  freedom  to  the  latter ;  hence,  the 
important  part  that  lime  performs  in  effecting  this  object, 
constitutes  it  the  nice  balancer  of  the  vat,  and  the  great  regu- 
lator of  the  fermentation.  And  the  exactness  required  in 
proportioning  the  lime  to  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  formed, 
is  what  makes  it  the  most  delicate  and  difficult  operation  in 
the  whole  art  of  dyeing ;  for  the  principal  derangement  of  a 
woad-vat,  proceeds  from  either  an  overcharge  or  undercharge 
of  lime." 

"The  amount  of  lime  given,  must  be  in  such  a  proportion 
to  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  formed,  that  the  two  substances 
will  mutually  saturate  each  other,  and  thus  form  a  neutral 
insoluble  precipitate  of  carbonate  of  lime,  leaving  the  ammo- 
nia and  indigo  in  solution.  This  situation  of  the  vat  consti- 
tutes its  true  or  correct  working;  condition." 


TANNIN. 
The  word  or  term  tannin,  was  originally  applied  to  a  prin- 
ciple contained  or  existing  in  many  vegetables.     This  princi- 
ple   has  a  very    astringent  taste,    and    has    the  property  of 
producing  a  white  flocculent  precipitate,  with  a  solution  of 

43 


338  THE    AMERICANS"   DYER. 

gelatine,  and  a  black  precipitate  with  the  salts  of  sesquioxide 
of  iron  (Fe^,©^).  As  obtained  from  different  plants,  it  was 
found  to  have  some  difference  in  properties,  frn-  which  reason 
chemists  recognize  two  kinds  of  tannin,  one  existing  in  oak 
bark,  galls,  &c.,  this  kind  being  distinguished  from  the  other 
kind,  b}^  its  producing  a  bluish-black  precipitate  with  the  ses- 
quioxide of  iron.  The  other  kind  of  tannin  existing  in 
Peruvian  bark,  catechu,  &c.,  is  distinguished  by  producing  a 
greenish-black,  or  a  dark  olive  precipitate,  with  the  above 
salt.  The  former  kind  has  received  the  most  attention  from 
chemists,  and  from  their  examinations  the  characters  of  tan- 
nin have  generally  been  given.  The  tannin  derived  from 
galls,  has  the  peculiarity  of  being  converted  into  gallic  acid 
(Ci4Hi60io)»  which  property  is  wanting  in  the  tannin  obtained 
from  catechu  or  Peruvian  bark. 

Since  the  experiments  of  M.  Pelouze  in  relation  to  tannin, 
it  has  been  universally  admitted  to  rank  with  the  acids,  and 
is  now,  therefore,  termed  tannic  acid  (CisHgOg+SHO).  The 
tannic  acid  obtained  from  galls,  has  been  termed,  for  the  sake 
of  distinction,  by  some  chemists,  gallotannic  acid,  and  by 
others,  quercitanmc  acid.     (See  article.  Tannic  Acid). 

Tannin  has  a  strong  affinity  for,  and  intimately  combines 
with,  vegetable  fibre,  and  also  with  color  and  its  constitu- 
ents, and  therefore  it  serves  as  the  medium  of  combination; 
and  as  the  greater  part  of  nutgalls  is  made  up  of  tannin,  we 
see  the  important  part  that  galls  play  in  the  operation  of  dye- 
ing those  substances  that  have  only  a  wery  feeble  affinity  for 
colors.  But  as  nutgalls  contain  gallic  acid  in  large  quantities 
(which  would  be  useless  as  an  inlennedia  in  coloring  opera- 
tions), we  would  very  naturally  suppose  that  a  sul)stance 
which  contains  more  tannin  and  less  gallic  acid  than  galls 
appear  to,  would  answer  the  purpose  of  an  intermedia  much 
better  than  galls  ;  and  there  is  not  the  least  doubt  in  my 
mind,  but  that  catechu  (which  is  one-half  tannin)  would  do 
better  for  that  purpose,  on  some  colors,  than  nutgalls. 

Tannin  does  not  crystallize,  but  forms  by  precipitation  or 


THE   AMEBICAN   DYER.  339 

evaporation,  a  brown,  resinous-looking  substance,  which  will 
readily  tlissolve  in  water.  This  vitreous  form  serves  to  dis- 
tinguish tannin,  or  the  astringent  principle,  from  the  true  or 
real  coloring-principle  of  dyestuffs,  the  latter  principle  being 
a  crystallizable  body.  Although  tannin  exists  more  or  less  in 
nearly  all  the  common  dyestuffs,  for  all  that,  it  is  a  dis- 
tinct principle  from  that  which  is  the  immediate  cause  of  color 
iu  dyeing  operations.  Yet  it  is  our  opinion,  that  the  tannin 
contained  in  dyestuffs  is  the  radical  of  the  coloring-principle; 
or,  at  least,  we  think  that  the  former  (tannin),  either  l)y 
absorbing  more  oxygen,  or  from  a  change  in  the  amount  of 
its  carbon,  or  by  a  combination  of  both,  becomes  the  coloring- 
principle  in  a  measure.  However,  as  there  is  no  positive 
proof  of  such  a  connection,  we  shall  view  them  as  two  dis- 
tinct substances,  and  endeavor  to  point  out  the  peculiar  feat- 
ures that  distinguish  one  from  the  other. 

Tannin,  when  separated  from  every  other  substance,  and 
when  pure  and  dry,  appears  as  a  brown-colored,  brittle,  and 
resinous  substance,  and  it  is  uncrystallizable.  The  coloring- 
principle,  when  it  is  separated  from  every  other  body,  is 
generally  in  a  mass  of  crystals,  and  possesses  the  power  of 
precipitating  all  the  metallic  oxides  from  their  solutions  (of 
producing  well-defined  colors),  which  tannin  does  not.  The 
two  principles  can  be  separated  one  from  the  other  by  adding 
gelatine,  which  will  precipitate  the  tannin  and  leave  the  col- 
oring-principle in  solution. 

Tannin  will  aid  in  filling  up,  or  giving  body  to  some  dark 
colors,  by  the  amount  of  dun  or  tawny  matter  which  it  com- 
municates ;  but  for  light  or  very  bright  colors,  it  should  be 
separated  from  the  coloring-principle  by  means  of  gelatine, 
as  the  most  brilliant  hues  are  obtained  only  by  the  true  color- 
ing-principle of  the  dyestuffs  which  we  have  to  use. 

Many  of  the  dyestuffs  we  use  contain  tannin.  Catechu 
contains  nearly  fifty  per  cent.,  nutgalls  thirty  to  forty-five  per 
cent.,  sumac  seventeen  per  cent.,  quercitron-bark  six  per 
cent.,  or  very  nearly  the  above  proportions.     The  action  of 


340  THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 

tannin  upon  the  mordants  is  very  often  injurious  to  the  tint 
or  hue  we  wish  to  obtain.  The  dyewood  being  boiled  to 
extract  the  coloring-matter,  the  tannin  contained  in  the  wood 
is  dissolved,  and  it  is  sure  to  act  upon  the  mordant,  which  is 
combined  with  the  fabric  to  be  dyed,  when  we  come  to 
immerse  it  in  the  coloring-solution,  producing  an  effect  upon 
the  fabric  very  similar  to  that  of  adding  a  little  sumac  to  the 
coloring-matter.  In  many  cases  this  would  be  beneficial,  but 
in  other  cases  it  would  be  injurious. 

In  silk,  but  more  especially  in  cotton  dj^eing,  tannin  or 
astringent  matters  are  more  necessary,  and  are  more  exten- 
sively used  than  they  are  in  woolen-dyeing,  because  the  silk 
and  cotton,  not  having  so  powerful  an  aifinity  for  colors  as 
wool  has,  it  is  necessary  to  impregnate  these  substances  with 
some  substance  that  will  have  a  tendency  to  unite  the  color 
with  the  silk  or  cotton,  and  this  substance  is  called  tannin,  or 
the  astringent  principle ;  therefore,  the  silk  and  cotton  dyer 
endeavors  to  use  those  substances  that  contain  more  or  less  of 
this  principle  in  their  operations,  as  it  serves  as  the  bond  of 
union,  or  the  medium  of  combination,  that  could  scared}' 
have  been  effected  without  it ;  therefore,  those  dyestuffs  that 
contain  astringent  or  tannin  matter,  in  the  case  of  silk  and 
cotton  dyeing,  act  a  very  important  part  in  dyeing  those 
substances. 

Vegetable    Substances   used    in    Dyeing   that   Contain 

Tannin. 
The  following  vegetable  substances  —  quercitron-bark, 
sumac,  divi  divi,  nutgalls,  valonia-nuts,  and  catechu,  or  cutch 
—  contain  essentially  an  astringent  principle,  termed  tannin, 
or  tannic  acid,  which,  although  it  differs  in  some  of  its  prop- 
erties as  derived  from  different  plants,  yet  agrees  in  all 
cases  as  being  of  an  astringent  taste,  and  giving  acid  re-action 
to  test-paper,  and  of  yielding,  with  the  salts  of  iron,  a  deep 
blue-black  or  green-black  color,  and  it  will  precipitate  a 
solution  of  glue  and  cinchanine. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 


341 


Quercitron-bark  contains,  according  to  E.  Wolff,  from 
10. 8G  to  15.83  per  cent,  of  tannin,  or  tannic  acid.  This 
variation  he  explains  by  giving  the  ago  of  the  tree,  and  the 
part  of  the  bark  taken  for  analysis,  thus  : — 


Age  of  the  trees. 


In  the  crude  bark  covered  with  the  rind 
inside  hxyer  of  the  old  bark,  . 
inside  ot  the  bark, . 
crude  bark,  and  inside  of  bark, 
inside  layer,  and  inside  of  bark, 
inside  of  bark, 
inside  of  bark,        ... 


41  to  53 
41  to  53 
41  to  53 
41  to  53 
41  to  53 
14  to  15 
2  to    7 


The  above  is  at  variance  with  the  researches  of  Buchner 
(1867),  who  asserts  that  the  very  best  of  black-oak  l)ark 
(quercitron-bark),  does  not  exceed,  in  amount  of  tannin,  over 
7  per  cent.     Dr.  Wagner  found  only  7.3  per  cent. 

Sumac  takes  its  place  next  to  quercitron-bark  as  reo-ards 
the  small  amount  of  tannin  contained  in  it ;  but  the  quantity 
varies  (according  to  the  country  in  which  it  was  grown)  from 
12  to  17  per  cent. 

Divi  divi,  or  Libi  Davi.  This  coloring-substance  contains, 
according  to  Muller,  49  per  cent.  ;  by  Fleck,  32.4  per  cent., 
while  Dr.  Wagner  found  from  19  to  26.7  per  cent. 

Nutgalls.  Those  from  Aleppo  contain  from  60  to  Q>Q, 
according  toFehling;  while  Fleck  found  58.71  per  cent,  of 
tannin  in  the  same  galls,  besides  5.9  per  cent,  of  gallic  acid. 

Valonin-nuts  contain  from  40  to  45  per  cent,  of  tannin  ;  but 
when  these  nuts  are  ground  to  a  powder,  they  seem  to  leave 
nearly  one-half  of  their  tannin-property,  as  they,  in  this  state, 
contain  only  from  19  to  27  per  cent,  of  tannin,  according  to 
Rothe's  analysis. 

Catechu,  or  cutch,  contains  more  tannin  than  any  of  the 
above-named  substances,  having  from  45  to  62  per  cent,  of 


342  THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 

it.  No  two  samples  of  catechu  will  give  the  same  quan- 
tity. This  coloring  material  is  used  to  the  same  extent  in 
cotton-dyeing  as  are  uutgalls  ;  but  it  is  seldom  used  in  wooleu- 
dj-eiug. 

There  are  other  coloring  substances  that  contain  tannin, 
but  the  quantity  is  so  small  that  we  will  omit  any  remarks 
upon  them. 


AURANTINE. 

This  is  another  of  the  yellow  coloring-substances  which  is 
DOW  becoming  extensively  used  in  the  ct)loring  of  wool  and 
cotton.  The  process  for  its  manufacture  is,  we  believe,  kept 
a  secret ;  the  same  can  be  said  of  flavine.  It  was  first  intro- 
duced in  1871,  and  although  of  so  recent  introduction,  for 
cotton  and  wool  coloring,  it  is  being  very  largely  used  by  cot- 
ton and  woolen  jdyers,  also  by  calico-printers,  and  has  almost 
entirely  superseded  the  use  of  Persian-berries,  flavine,  and 
quercitron-bark  in  calico-printing. 

On  cotton  or  wool  it  will  produce  a  color  from  the  most 
delicate  lemon-shade  to  a  rich,  full,  and  deep  yellow.  It  is 
well  adapted  for  coloring  scarlets,  used  along  with  cochineal, 
on  wool  or  woolen  fabrics;  also  for  scarlets  on  cotton,  when 
used  along  with  saffranine, — superseding  the  so-called  aniline 
scarlet  dyes.     It  has  double  the  coloring-powers  of  flavine. 

The  mordants  used  are  mostly  the  same  as  for  flavine.  It 
produces  beautiful  shades  of  yellow  on  raw  cotton,  when 
colored  in  the  lap,  by  the  use  of  alum  alone  as  a  mordant. 

A  solution  of  aurantine  gives  the  following  precipitates  with 
the  following  metallic  salts  : — 

Oxy-muriate  of  antimony  gives  a  very  bright  canary-color. 
Oxalic  acid  gives  a  very  bright  but  light  yellow. 
Sulphate  of  iron  gives  a  dark  sage-drab  color. 
Sulphate  of  copper  gives  a  bright,  light  sage  color. 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  .'343 

Tin  crystals  give  an  orange-yellow  color,  rather  dull-hjok- 
ing. 

Tartaric  acid  gives  a  very  light  sage  color. 

Sulphate  of  alumina  gives  a  rich-looking  yellow,  not  so 
bright  as  oxalic  acid,  but  deeper. 

We  see  by  the  different  re-actions  of  the  above  salts,  that 
they  give  a  better  result  with  aurantine  than  w^ith  flavine, 
which  cannot  be  accounted  for  in  any  other  manner  than  l)y 
the  greater  amount  of  coloring-principle  contained  in  the 
aurantine  than  there  is  in  flavine. 

Aurantine  is  very  rich  in  coloring-matter.  Boiling-water 
extracts  some  tannin  from  it,  and  when  it  is  evaporated,  it 
leaves  a  resinous,  light,  cinnamon-colored  substance,  weight- 
ing less  than  one-tenth  the  weight  used  for  the  experiment. 

This  tannin,  however,  is  principally  extractive  matter,  and 
the  coloring-principle  of  the  aurantine  ;  and  if  we  would  pre- 
cipitate the  small  amount  of  tannin  there  is  in  it,  by  using  one 
pound  of  glue  to  every  pound  of  aurantine  used,  we  will 
obtain  a  much  brighter  yellow. 

For  the  brightest  shades  of  canary-color,  the  oxy-muriate 
of  antimony  seems  to  be  the  best  and  proper  mordant  for 
wool  colored  yellow  with  aurantine.  If  we  wish  to  obtain  a 
yellow  of  a  lemon  shade,  we  must  use  for  the  mordant  sulpho- 
nmnate  of  tin  (see  Solutions  of  Tin)  ;  and  for  a  yellow  of  an 
orange  shade,  use  murio- sulphate  of  tin;  and  for  a  yellow 
called  brimstone-color,  use  sulphate  of  tin,  with  the  same 
weight  of  tartar  that  there  is  of  sulphate  of  tin,  with  a  very 
little  alum. 

The  orange-colored  yellow  can  also  be  obtained  by  using  a 
ver}'  small  qui^itity  of  cochineal  with  the  aurantine ;  that  is, 
when  using  oxy-muriate  of  antimony  as  a  mordant ;  but  should 
you  use  muriate  of  tin  as  a  mordant,  instead  of  the  oxy- 
muriate  of  antimony,  the  color  will  not  be  as  bright  and 
lively. 

The  lemon  shade  can  also  be  obtained  by  using  a  veiy  small 


344  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

quantity  of  sulphate  of  indigo  along  with  the  sulpho-muriate 
of  tin  and  aurantine ;  yet  it  is  better  to  give  the  particular 
shade  by  a  variation  of  the  mordants. 

How  aurantine  would  work  for  giving  the  yellow  part  of 
color  to  browns,  olives,  and  greens,  I  am  not  able  to  state 
definitely  at  present,  but  think  it  would  do  vastly  better  than 
either  quercitron-bark,  flavine,  or  even  fustic,  on  account  of 
its  concentrated  strength  of  color  and  brio-htness. 

Henry  D.  Dupee  is  sole  manufacturer  of  aurantine  and  oxy- 
muriate  of  antimony,  79  Kilby  Street,  Boston,  Mass.  (See 
articles  Flavine,  Fustic,  and  Quercitron-Bark.) 


BLUE-VATS. 
Woolen  and  cotton  fabrics,  or  tissues,  are  dyed  indigo-blue 
by  means  of  reducing  indigo  in  an  alkaline  fluid,  the  material 
being  blued  by  exposure  to  the  atmosphere  ;  or,  in  other  words, 
they  become  blue  by  the  oxidation  of  the  indigo  taken  up  by 
the  fibre,  the  dye  becoming  simultaneously  fixed.  The  princi- 
ple of  this  method  of  coloring  with  indigo  is  known  as  blue- 
vat  dyeing.  The  same  kind  of  blue-vat  is  not  adapted  for 
both  cotton  and  wool,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  following  details 
of  the  difierent  blue-vats  now  in  use  both  in  America  and 
Europe.  The  lime  and  copperas  vat  is  not  adapted  for  dyeing 
wool ;  neither  is  the  woad-vat  adapted  for  coloring  cotton. 
Therefore,  it  will  be  seen  that  there  must  be  a  wide  difierence 
in  the  composition  of  the  two  vats.  The  copperas-vat  for 
cotton-yarn  and  cloth  is  set  (a  technical  term  for  preparing  a 
vat  to  color  in)  with  lime,  copperas,  ground  indigo,  and 
water,  the  proportions  difieringwith  diflferent  d3'ers,  but  the 
most  common  proportions  used  being  as  follows  ;  Nine  hun- 
dred gallons  of  water  ;  sixty  pounds  of  green  copperas  ;  thirty- 
six  pounds  of  ground  indigo  ;  eighty-five  to  ninety'  pounds  of 
slacked  lime ;  or  the  same  proportions  according  to  size  of 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  345 

vat.  These  materials  are  stirred  or  raked  up  every  half-hour 
for  three  or  four  hours  ;  then  left  for  twelve  hours,  and  then 
raked  again;  and  after  it  has  settled,  the  vat  is  ready  to 
color  in. 

The  chemical  action,  in  the  first  instance,  consists  in  the  for- 
mation of  sulphate  of  lime  (S04Ca  —  gypsum),  and  protoxide 
of  iron  (FeO).  This  latter  substance  having  a  great  affinity 
for  ox^'gen,  removes  an  atom  of  it  from  the  blue  indigo,  which 
converts  the  blue  indigo  into  white  indigo,  which  dissolves  in 
the  excess  of  lime,  and  is  now  ready  to  color  in. 

When  the  ground  indigo  is  put  into  a  vat,  the  composition 
of  which  is  lime  and  copperas,  the  first  action  which  takes 
place  Avill  be  the  decomposition  of  the  copperas  ;  the  sulphuric 
acid,  which  is  in  combination  with  the  iron,  combines  with  a 
portion  of  the  lime,  forming  sulphate  of  lime  and  oxide  of 
iron.  "The  detached  oxide  of  iron  extracts  more  oxygen 
from  the  indigo,  converting  it  into  indigogen  (or  white  indigo)  ; 
and  the  peroxide  of,  iron,  and  sulphate  of  lime  thus  formed, 
arc  precii)itated,  forming  what  is  technically  known  as  sludge. 
The  remaining  portion  of  lime  dissolves  the  indigogen,  and 
forms  with  it  the  solution  required." 

The  following  is  a  representation  of  the  action  and  result, 
and  gives  a  clear  view  of  the  blue-vat :  — 

„T    -,.  ,    /.C  Indigogen,  dyeing-solution. 

Indigo,  composed  or  <         ^  ^         -^     i      ,. 

C  Oxygen,  peroxide  of  iron. 

rOxide  of  iron,  peroxide  of  iron. 

J  Oxide  of  iron,  peroxide  of  iron. 

'^^     '    '*  j  Sulphuric  acid,  sulphate  of  lime. 

L  Sulphuric  acid,  sulphate  of  lime. 

♦  C  Lime,  dyeing-solution. 

Three  lime,       .         .  \  Lime,  sulphate  of  lime. 

^  Lime,  sulphate  of  lime." 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  above  diagram,  that  this  theory  of  the 

44 


346  THE   AMEKICAN   DYER. 

copperas- vat  is  founded  on  the  blue  indigo  (CieHjoNg)  being 
an  oxide. 

The  view  which  Dumas  takes  of  the  constitution  of  indigo, 
and  the  action  which  is  said  to  take  phice  in  the  vat,  will  be 
somewhat  difierent  from  the  theory  given  above.  "  When  the 
lime  combines  with  the  acid  of  the  copperas,  the  iron  decom- 
poses a  portion  of  the  water,  combining  with  the  oxygQU,  and 
the  hydrogen  combines  with  the  indigo,  forming  indigogen" 
(CicHjoNoOg),  which  Dumas  represents  as  follows  :  — 

"Indigo,         .     Indigo,  indigogen  forming  the  dyeing-solu- 
tion. 

r  Hydrogen,    indigogen    forming   the   dyeing- 
Water,  .         . }        solution. 

C  Oxygen. 

^  Lime,  peroxide  of  iron. 
Three  lime,    .  }  Lime,  sul[)hate  of  lime. 

C  Lime,  sulphate  of  lime.  . 

f  Oxide  of  iron,  peroxide  of  iron, 

J  Oxide  of  iron,  peroxide  of  iron. 
^  ^        '  ]  Sulphuric  acid,  sulphate  of  lime. 

I  Sulphuric  acid,  sulphate  of  lime." 

This  theory  is  equally  if  not  more  correct  than  the  former 
one,  but  in  many  cases  it  is  hardly  reconcilable  with  our  ex- 
perience, chemically  speaking. 

According  to  the  former  theory,  the  indigogen  combines 
with  the  oxygen,  for  which  we  know  it  has  a  very  strong 
affinity,  forming  blue-indigo,  which  will  remain  combined 
with  the  fabric ;  but,  in  accordance  with  the  latter  theory,  the 
blue-indigo  will  be  left  in  combination  with  the  fabric  or  yarn 
by  the  hydrogen  combining  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  and 
thus  forming  water. 

If  a  quantity  of  lime  and  copperas  is  put  into  a  bottle  of 

distilled  water,  we  find  that  the  water  will  not  become  decom- 

,  posed,  because  the  lime  will  combine  with  the  acid  in  the  cop- 


THE    AMEKICAN    DYER.  347 

.peras,  and  will,  along  with  the  iron,  precipitate  ;  should  you 
exclude  the  air  conipletely  from  the  mixture,  by  corking  the 
bottle  tightly,  the  iron  will  remain  in  the  l)ottle  as  a  pro- 
toxide, for  many  days ;  the  change  from  a  protoxide  to  a  per- 
oxide is  so  very  slow  that  some  time  will  elapse  before  it  is 
perceptible  ;  but  should  you  add  indigo  to  it  after  this  mixture 
has  stood  for  some  days,  the  action  of  the  common  vat  will 
occur.  This,  in  accordance  with  Dumas's  theory,  gives  a 
good  illustration  of  relative  affinities. 

Before  the  indigo  was  added,  the  attraction  of  the  copperas 
for  oxygen  would  be  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  hydrogen, 
which  holds  the  ox3'gen  in  combination  as  water ;  l)ut  when 
the  indigo  is  added,  although  the  indigo  has  a  very  weak 
attraction  for  hydrogen,  because  it  requires  the  nicest  man- 
agement to  get  the  hydrogen  isolated,  yet  it  is  sufficient  to  dis- 
turb the  equilibrium  with  which  the  oxygen  is  held  by  the 
iron  and  hydrogen,  giving  the  oxygen  the  mastery. 

Whether  an  alkaline  substance  has  any  effect  in  producing 
the  formation  of  indigogen,  we  do  not  pretend  to  say,  but  it 
is  never  formed  in  the  vat  without  the  presence  of  an  alkaline 
substance  to  dissolve  it  the  moment  it  is  formed.  There  is 
one  serious  trouble  in  working  the  copperas-vat,  which  con- 
sists in  what  is  called  swimming ;  that  is,  the  vat  does  not 
settle.  This  is  caused  by  a  number  of  circumstances,  —  one 
cause  is  that  the  copperas  contains  too  much  acid,  which  forms 
a  sulphate  of  lime,  causing  it  not  to  settle  so  quickly,  the 
copperas  not  being  decomposed;  but  the  principal  cause  of  a 
floating-vat  is  that  there  is  too  much  lime  and  copperas  in 
proportion  to  the  indigo ;  to  remedy  this  there  must  be  more 
indigo  added  to  the  vat,  so  as  to  peroxidize  the  copperas. 
Another  cause  for  its  floating  is  that  the  lime  has  been  too 
long  slacked,  and,  being  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  it  be- 
comes converted  into  chalk  ;  and  when  such  lime  is  used  it  is 
very  injurious  in  other  respects,  besides  causing  swinuning  or 
floating.  The  lime  used  should  be  freshly  slacked  to  produce 
the  best  effects  in  a  copperas-vat. 


348  THE    AMERICAN   DYEK. 

The  following  are  the  proportions  of  materials  used  in  the 
vats  for  skein-dyeing  (the  vats  being  usually  wine-casks), 
assuming  that  the  materials  are  of  the  best  kind  :  eight  pounds 
of  indigo,  fourteen  pounds  of  copperas,  eighteen  pounds  of 
lime;  these  materials  being  put  in,  the  whole  is  raked  every 
two  hours  through  the  day  ;  on  the  following  morning  it  is 
ready  for  use. 

The  proportion,  or  equivalent,  of  lime  can  be  calculated 
from  the  table  of  elements  (which  see),  and  also  the  rate  of 
combination.  The  technical  term  for  slacked  lime  being  hy- 
drated  oxide  of  calcium  (formula,  CaO,HO),  and  the  equiv- 
alent of  lime  being  20;  oxygen,  8;  hydrogen,  1;  and  oxy- 
gen, 8  ;  or  thus  :  — 


Cai=20 
8 


Lime, io  — 


37 


The  copperas  being  thus  expressed  :  — 

n  5Fe  r= 

Copperas,  ....        | 


Fe  =28 
48 
Water  of  crystallization     .         .        7H20=:63 

139 

By  this  we  find  that  the  slacked,  or  hydrated  lime  has 
thirty-seven  equivalents,  and  should  neutralize  one  hundred 
and  thirty-nine  equivalents  of  copperas  ;  or  we  will  say  that 
thirty-seven  pounds  of  lime  should  neutralize  one  hundred 
and  thirty-nine  pounds  of  copperas ;  but  as  we  find  that 
seventy-seven  gallons  of  water,  at  60°  Fahr.,  will  dissolve 
but  one  pound  of  lime,  it  is  easy  to  see  what  a  few  pounds  is 
required  above  the  equivalent  for  copperas  to  form  the  lime- 
solution  of  the  copperas-vat.  These  vats  are  always  worked 
cold. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  3J9 

Messrs.  R.  Schloesser  &  Co.,  of  Manchester,  Eng.,  have 
made  a  very  marked  improvement,  within  the  hist  three  or 
four  years,  in  the  method  of  setting  the  copperas-vat,  which 
has  removed  the  bulky  sediment  of  lime  which  was  such  an 
objection  to  the  vat ;  besides,  this  improvement  saves  a  <^reat 
loss  of  indigo  by  its  combination  with  the  oxide  of  iron  ;  the 
solution  is  much  clearer,  the  cotton  pieces  are  not  apt  to  be 
so  spotted  (as  when  colored  in  the  usual  way  of  setting  a  cop- 
peras-vat), and  a  better  class  of  work  is  obtained. 

"To  carry  out  their  process,  they  add  to  the  ordinary  two 
thousand-gallon  vat  twenty  pounds  of  ground  indigo,  thirty 
pounds  of  iron-turnings,  thirty  pounds  of  powdered  zinc,  and 
thirty-five  pounds  of  quicklime;  the  whole  is  raked  up  from 
time  to  time,  for  twenty-four  hours,  when  it  is  ready  for 
use."  If  the  vat  is  not  considered  strong  enough,  they  add 
more  lime  and  zinc.  The  chemical  theory  of  the  process  is, 
that  the  zinc,  under  the  influence  of  the  lime,  decomposes  the 
water,  combining  with  its  oxygen;  and  the  hydrogen,  thus 
liberated,  removes  oxygen  from  the  indigo,  which  will  then 
dissolve  in  the  lime. 


WOAD-VAT. 


The  vats  for  coloring  wool  indigo-blue,  are  known  by  the 
name  of  woad-vat,  pastel-vat,  potash  or  ash  vat,  and  the 
German-vat;  besides  others  inserted  in  this  work.  The 
woad-vat  gives  the  best  results  of  any  kind  of  a  blue-vat  yet 
known,  although  it  is  the  most  difficult  to  manage  of  any.  It 
requires  an  experienced  dyer  to  work  one  economically  and 
for  the  profit  of  his  employer,  and  no  dyer  but  an  experienced 
one  should  attempt  to,  or  be  allowed  to  manage  a  woad-vat ; 
for  without  considerable  practical  experience,  very  close  ob- 
servation, and  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  effects  produced 
upon  the  vat,  by  each  of  the  different  materials   used  in  the 


350  THE    AMEKICAlSr   DYER. 

process  of  working  one,  no  dyer  can  work  one  without  a  great 
risk  of  losing  it. 

The  manner  of  setting  and  conducting  a  woad-vat  we  have 
abridged  from  "  Gibson's  System  and  Science  of  Colors,"  which 
we  consider  the  best  method  adopted  among  the  very  many 
methods  now  in  practice.  "  This  slight  description  of  a  woad- 
vat,  is  not  to  stimulate  the  inexperienced  to  attempt  the  man- 
agement of  so  difficult  and  inexplicable  a  part  of  dyeing,  but 
only  to  give  a  general  outline  of  the  common  or  usual  manner 
of  setting  and  conducting  a  woad-vat,  so  that  those  who  have 
had  no  opportunity  of  observing  the  process,  can  form  some 
idea  respecting  the  manner  of  working  one." 

Dimensions  of  vat,  seven  feet  deep  and  six  feet  diameter. 
"Fill  this  up  to  within  about  two  feet;  then  throw  in  live 
hundred  pounds  of  woad  well  chopped  up  into  small  pieces  j 
let  this  soak  overnight,  the  water  being  heated  to  about  180° 
or  190°  Fahr.  ;  rake  up  well  the  next  morning;  fill  up  the 
rat  to  within  six  inches  of  the  top,  and  heat  it  to  175°  ;  then 
put  in  ten  pounds  best  madder,  twenty  quarts  of  wheat  bran, 
forty  pounds  Bengal  indigo,  ten  pounds  of  slacked  lime  (tech- 
nically called  ware)  ;  rake  these  up  for  half  an  hour ;  then 
put  on  the  covers  to  the  vat ;  then  in  the  afternoon  rake  up 
agiiin  and  leave  for  the  night."  "  Be  at  the  vat  early  next 
morning ;  uncover  the  vat  and  see  if  there  are  not  some  bub- 
bles standing  upon  the  surface ;  take  some  of  them  up  with 
your  fingers  and  you  will  find  that  they  have  more  consistency 
and  are  tougher  than  bubbles  formed  by  clear  water.  Next 
look  the  surface  over,  and  see  if  there  is  not  a  thin  film  of 
indigo,  of  a  purplish  shade  upon  it,  which  can  be  taken  up  on 
the  finger-nail ;  then  agitate  the  liquor  with  a  small  stick  a 
little ;  take  out  the  stick  and  incline  it,  and  plunge  two  or 
three  inches  beneath  the  surface,  agitating  briskly,  so  as  to 
raise  a  number  of  bubl)les ;  take  some  of  them  up  between 
your  fingers,  part  the  fingers,  and  then  see  if  they  stand  full 
and  do  not  break  quite  so  quick  as  bubbles  formed  by  water." 
"  Now  take  the  dish  and  dip  up  some  of  the  liquor,  and  let  it 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  351 

run  gently  over  the  side  of  the  dish  into  the  vat,  and  while  it 
is  so  doing  look  through  it  towards  the  light,  and  it  should 
appear  of  a  deep  green  or  olive  color."  "Having  gone 
through  with  this  examination,  and  found  that  the  vat  exhibits 
these  features,  it  shows  that  the  vat  has  sprung  its  indigo,  or 
that  some  of  the  indigo  is  in  solution,  or,  in  other  words,  a 
portion  of  the  indigo  has  become  deoxidized  by  the  fermenta- 
tion of  the  woad,  madder  and  bran,  and  is  now  in  want  of 
some  alkaline  matter, — give  it  live  pounds  of  lime  {ware)  and 
rake  it  up  gently,  but  well,  avoiding  plunging  or  too  much 
agitation  ;  cover  it  up  and  let  it  stand  for  two  hours ;  then 
look  at  it  again,  and  suspend  a  lock  of  wool  in  it  for  ten  or 
tifteen  minutes.  This  should  come  out  a  yellowish-green,  and 
will  take  five  minutes  before  it  will  become  entirely  blue  (or 
ungreen,  as  dyers  say)."  "Lay  this  lock  aside  so  as  to  com- 
pare with  the  sample  that  you 'may  try  the  next  time  you 
examine  the  vat."  "  In  about  one  hour  examine  the  vat  aofain, 
and  there  should  be  a  greater  quantity  of  bubbles  formed,  and 
ajlurree  has  formed,  which  lies  well  to  the  back  part  of  the 
vat.  The  liquor  looks  richer  in  color,  the  scum  or  pellicle  of 
indigo  has  become  thicker  and  more  copper-colored,  and  on 
moving  the  liquor  with  your  hand,  or  with  the  dish,  green 
waves  or  rather  veins,  can  l)e  seen." 

"The  vat  is  now  opening.  Examine  it  with  the  dish  as  before, 
and  the  liquor  you  will  sec  has  become  a  still  more  yellow- 
green  or  olive  color,  showing  a  further  deoxidation  of  the 
indigo,  and  now  it  wants  more  ware.  Give  it  five  pounds  of 
ware;  rake  up  as  before."  "Let  it  stand  for  three  hours  ; 
then  suspend  a  second  lock  of  wool  in  it  for  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes ;  when  it  is  taken  out  it  should  be  of  a  deeper  shade, 
and  more  like  a  grass-green  than  the  first  lock  was  ;  it  will 
take  a  longer  time  for  it  to  ungreen,  and  will  be  almost  a 
middle-l)lue,  with  a  slight  green  tinge,  after  being  exposed  to 
the  atmosphere  for  half  an  hour."  "Now  compare  this  with 
the  first  lock,  and  it  should  be  a  deeper  and  clearer  blue  than 


352  THE    AINIERICAN    DYER. 

the  first.  This  shows  that  the  vat  is  progressing  well,  but  is 
short  of  ware." 

"  A  slight  observation  of  the  smooth  part  of  the  vat  con- 
vinces you  of  its  improved  condition,  the  scum  or  pellicle 
looks  richer  and  more  glossy,  and  on  blowing  upon  it  with 
your  mouth,  you  will  see  the  scum  of  indigo  open  in  a  circle, 
showing  the  liquor  beneath  it  of  a  yellowish-green,  and  the 
circle  will  close  again  on  withdrawing  your  breath."  "  Wav- 
ing the  surface  about  with  the  dish,  the  veins  or  wavy  shades 
of  color  are  of  a  livelier  and  yellower  green  than  in  the  former 
examination  ;  they  spread  wider  and  seem  to  roll  about  much 
longer,  and  the  color  strikes  the  hand  quicker  and  deeper." 

"The  fiurree  is  now  much  more  in  quantity,  and  looms  up 
well  on  the  back  part  of  the  vat,  covering  more  space  than 
before,  the  bubbles  are  larger,  and  are  of  a  fine  indigo-blue. 
If  the  vat  has  these  characteristics,  give  it  five  pounds  more 
of  ware,  rake  it  up,  and  let  it  stand  four  hours.  After  it  has 
rested  for  this  letigth  of  time,  dip  in  another  lock  of  wool 
for  twenty  or  thirty  minutes,  and  when  it  is  taken  out  it 
should  be  a  deep,  rich  green,  and  in  about  five  minutes,  change 
to  a  lively,  even,  middle  blue,  having  a  slight  tinge  of  pur- 
ple to  it." 

"If  this  green  should  pass  to  a  pale  grayish-looking  blue, 
the  vat  has  got  too  much  ware,  or  is  hard;  but  if  it  retains 
the  greenish  shade  after  being  out  and  exposed  to  the  air  for 
twenty  minutes,  it  is  a  certain  criterion  that  the  vat  has  not 
ivare  enough,  or  the  vat  is  soft,  and  needs  a  little  more  icare." 
"Blow  strongly  upon  the  surface  of  the  vat,  and  a  circle  of 
one  or  two  inches  in  diameter  will  appear,  showing  the  inter- 
nal liquor  of  a  fine  gold  color,  or  in  some  cases  a  rich  yellow^- 
ish-green."  "The  bubbles  and  jiurree  are  more  numerous, 
and  of  various  sizes,  some  of  them  being  as  large  as  hen's- 
eggs,  and  are  a  beautiful  indigo  color;  they  stand  well,  and 
do  not  easily  break  or  fall  down,  even  when  strongly  agitated." 

"On  waving  the  clear  surface  from  side  to  side,  with  the 
dish,  the  scum  or  pellicle  of  indigo  runs    off   towards   the 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  353 

jlurree,  and  shows  all  the  indigo  shades,  from  the  lightest  blue 
to  the  richest  pnrplo  ;  the  wavy  veins  arc  now  larger,  wider, 
and  roll  about  more  than  before,  the  body  of  the  liquor  bcino- 
of  a  rich  yellow,  intermixed  with  the  various  shades  of  green. 
On  examining  the  liquor  with  the  dish,  you  will  see  that  it 
looks  well,  and  has  a  good  strong  body,  and  on  turning  the 
dish,  with  the  edge  towards  you  in  a  perpendicular  manner, 
the  liquor  hangs  from  the  edge  like  a  fine  syrup,  and  gives  a 
fragrant  and  agreeable  sn\ell,  not  unlike  weak  ammonia." 

"Take   it   as    a  whole,   and  the   vat   presents   a  splendid- 
appearance,  and  everything  about  it  shows  that  it  has  got  its 
full  complement  of  loare,  and  is  now  ready  to  color  in." 

"There  are  cases  where  a  vat  sometimes  requires  more  and 
sometimes  less  lime  than  has  been  mentioned ;  this  is  owing 
to  the  variation  in  the  strength  of  the  woad  and  the  quality 
of  the  lime ;  but,  as  a  general  rule,  five  hundred  pounds  of 
woad  will  require  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  pounds  of  luare.'" 
The  vat  should  be  kept  up  to  135°  of  heat  during  all  this  time. 

"By  taking  the  above  plan,  and  assuming  that  the  materials 
are  of  the  best  quality,  all  these  changes  and  appearances 
will  take  place,  and  the  progress  of  the  vat  will  be  as  certain 
as  the  above  short  description  has  represented  it  to  be,  so 
much  so  that  in  nineteen  cases  out  of  twenty  it  Avill  be 
brought  to  work  on  the  day  after  it  is  set,  and  can  be  colored 
in  on  the  following  day." 

The  Manner  of  Working  a  Woad- Vat  from  Day  to  Day. 

Gibson^ s  System  of  Dyeing. 

"A  vat  of  the  size  specified  in  the  preceding  pages  will 
color  from  fifty  to  seventy-five  pounds  of  clean  wool  at  a  time. 
Shake  this  amount  of  wool  into  small  locks  in  front  of  the 
vat,  taking  care  to  have  it  opened  well,  so  that  the  whole  pile 
may  l)e  loose  ;  this  is  done  in  order  that  the  color  will  strike 
the  wool  evenly  and  all  alike.  Now  uncover  the  vat,  and 
skim  off  i\\QJiurree  into  a  pail,  and  after  coloring,  when  ready 

45 


354  THE    AMERICAN    DYEK. 

to  rake  up,  turn  this  flurree  back  into  the  vat  again.  Put  in 
the  trammel  and  net,  then  throw  in  the  wool  lightly  and  ex- 
peditiously, getting  it  under  the  liquor  as  soon  as  possible. 
Handle  the  wool  with  the  sticks  until  the  whole  is  even,  and 
continue  the  stirring  lor  about  half  an  hour.  Now  take  it 
out,  having  it  well  wrung  out,  throw  it  upon  the  floor,  and 
shake  it  over,  so  that  it  may  ungreen  as  speedily  as  possible." 

"If  you  have  an  old  or  a  weak  vat,  you  can  dip  the  wool 
in  that  to  finish  it ;  but  if  not,  thei^take  the  sample  you  have 
to  color  by,  and  compare  .it  with  that  which  you  have  just 
dipped,  and  see  if  you  can  bring  up  the  shade  required,  l)y 
o-iving  it  another  dip,  without  having  to  rake  the  vat.  If  you 
find  you  cannot,  then  have  it  well  raked  up,  and  after  it  has 
become  settled,  enter  the  wool  again,  and  proceed  as  before; 
but  do  not  allow  it  to  stay  in  any  longer  than  it  requires  to 
bring  up  the  color  to  the  desired  shade." 

"When  it  is  taken  out  proceed  as  before,  and  when  it  is 
unffreened  have  the  wool  well  washed  off." 

"Now  give  the  vat  five  pounds  of  ware,  rake  up  well,  and 
if  the  heat  is  low  put  on  steam  until  it  rises  to  135°,  then 
cover  up  the  vat,"  135°  being  the  best  temperature  to  work 
the  vat. 

"Let  all  these  operations  be  concluded  by  three  or  four 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  so  as  to  give  the  vat  time  to  rest  and 
clear  itself  before  the  last  raking  time,*  and  by  this  means  it 
will  o'ive  you  an  opportunity  of  judging  of  the  precise  state  of 
the  vat — whether  it  is  in  want  of  icare,  or  has  got  too  much 
of  it." 

"  After  raking,  heat  up  to  135°.  About  seven  o'clock,  p.  3i., 
o-o  to  the  vat  and  examine  the  liquor  ;  see  if  it  looks  clear  and 

*  This  used  to  be  at  eight  o'clock,  p.m.,  but  now  dyers  do  not  go  to  their 
vats  alter  they  have  doue'their  day's  work  until  the  next  morning ;  so  if 
their  vats  are  not  in  good  conditioti,  they  have  cither  to  rake  thciu  ))efore 
they  can  cplor  in  them,  or  color  in  tliem  and  get  a  poor  color;  ^Yhcn,  iftliey 
looked  at  the  vat  in  the  evening,  and  it  wanted  raking  or  serving,  they 
could  then  do  it,  thus  saving  time  the  next  day,  besides  having  a  vat  in 
coudition  to  color  in,  and  not  be  obliged  to  color  in  it  when  out  of  order. 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  355 

han^s  well  to  the  dish  ;  notice  whether  it  has  a  good  jlurreey 
and  the  smooth  surface  looks  glossy,  and  on  blowing  into  it, 
it  opens  and  closes  up  again,  showing  a  copper-colored- pel- 
licle, as  was  described  in  regard  to  bringing  the  vat  to  work." 

"  Smell  at  the  edge  of  the  dish  ;  if  the  vat  has  too  much 
icare,  it  will  smell  of  the  lime ;  if  it  has  not  enough  lime  it 
•  will  smell  vapid  and  soft ;  in  the  latter  case  give  the  vat  three 
pounds  o(  ware;  but  if  it  smells  of  the  lime,  give  four  or  live 
pounds  of  madder  and  six  or  eight  quarts  of  bran,  and  rake 
up  well." 

"  The  next  day  proceed  to  color  with  the  same  weight  of 
wool  in  the  same  manner,  and  give,  after  coloring,  from  three 
to  five  pounds  ivare,  which  will  be  about  the  amount  re(|iiired 
for  each  day's  coloring  afterwards,  with  few  exceptions.  After 
three  or  four  days'  work  you  will  have  to  renew  the  vat  with 
indigo  ;  this  should  be  done  after  coloring  in  the  afternoon  ; 
give  it  as  much  indigo  as  your  judgment  directs;  that  is,  as 
much  as  you  think  the  wool  has  taken  out,  and  at  the  same 
time  give  five  pounds  of  madder,  two  quarts  of  bran,  and  four 
pounds  o^  iccD'e,  as  the  case  may  be  ;  then  rake  up  well." 

"Perhaps  a  good  raking  may  answer,  without  giving  it 
either  lime  or  madder  ;  but  your  judgment  must  determine  this 
according  to  the  appearance  of  the  vat." 

"In  giving  or  serving  the  vat  with  indigo,  there  is  no  par- 
ticular stated  period  for  doing  this,  as  some  dyers  give  the 
vat  indigo  every  day  ;  others,  every  two  days,  and  some  but 
once  a  week,  each  having  his  own  particular  opinions  or 
ideas  in  regard  to  serving  with  indigo  ;  but  we  think  that  a 
vat  should  receive  a  renewal  of  indigo  twice  a  week;  that  is, 
every  '\^'ednesday  and  Saturday  afternoon."  The  vats  should 
be  raked  and  looked  to,  at  least  once  on  the  Sunday,  if  you 
intend  to  work  them  on  the  following  Monday.  A  vat  does 
not  pay  to  work  over  four  months  before  re-setting,  tliat  is, 
if  you  work  it  every  day,  as  after  that  length  of  time  it 
requires  a  larger  amount  of  indigo  to  produce  the  same  shade 
thin  it  would  if  it  had  beeu  worked  but  two  or  three  mouths'. 


35G  THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 

"In  the  above  description  the  reader  has  only  been  con- 
ducted through  the  process  of  setting  and  working  a  vat  upon 
the  most  scientific  principles,  and  where  everything  has  gone 
on  in  a  straightforward  manner  and  with  the  most  perfect 
success,  because  we  have  had  the  best  materials  to  work  with 
(which  ought  always  to  be  the  case),  and  have  been  treating 
it  in  a  workmanlike  manner,  knowing  beforehand  the  nature 
and  proper  application  of  the  materials  we  were  using, -and 
the  certain  effects  of  everything  we  employed." 

"  The  reader  will  be  satisfied,  that  a  short  description  of  this 
kind  upon  the  most  important  and  complicated  department  of 
dj'eing,  is  of  more  real  value  than  a  volume  of  observations 
on  the  methods  of  getting  a  vat  right  after  suffering  it,  by  an 
injudicious  mode  of  treatment,  to  get  wrong." 

"It  is  easy  to  perceive  that  there  could  be  more  written 
respecting  the  woad-vat ;  for  there  are  numberless  appear- 
ances of  the  vat  and  wool,  which,  if  closely  observed  by  the 
dyer,  will  give  him  a  certain  knowledge  of  the  precise 
state  of  the  vat,  and  will  point  out  to  him  the  materials  it  is 
most  in  want  off;  these  have  not  been  noticed." 

The  want  of  success  in  working  a  woad-vat  is  often  caused 
by  using  poor  woad  and  poor  indigo.  (See  articles,  Woad  and 
Indigo.)  Indigo  is  a  substance  which  contains  from  thirty- 
five  to  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  true  indigo.  So  with  such  a 
wide  range,  to  say  nothing  in  regard  to  the  difference  in  quality 
that  there  is  in  indigo,  it  is  not  surprising  that  some  of  our 
best  dyers  sometimes  err  in  their  judgment  in  regard  to  the 
state  of  their  vats,  and  are  often  troubled  to  ascertain  the 
cause  of  the  vat  working  so  imperfectly  or  irregularly.  Limes 
that  are  used  should  be  considered  also.  Most  of  the  American 
limes  contain  a  large  amount  of  magnesia,  or  at  least  they  are 
always  mixed  more  or  less  with  magnesia,  and  when  lime  con- 
tains magnesia  and  is  used  for  blue-vats,  it  forms  into  sulphate 
of  magnesia  (MgO,S04),  which  is  very  soluble,  and  by  succes- 
sive additions  of  such  lime,  causes  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
liquid  of  the  vat  to  increase  to  a  point  when  the  woad  and 


THE    AMEllICAN   DYER.  JJoT 

madder  will  with  great  difficulty  settle,  so  that  it  will  he  fit 
to  color  in.  It  is  better  to  employ  these  limes  that  are  free 
from  magnesia,  which  are  those  burned  in  Thomaston  and 
Rockland,  Me. 


PASTEL-VAT. 

In  setting  all  blue-vats,  with  the  exception  of  the  copperas- 
vat,  the  first  thought  and  care  of  the  dyer  should  be  to  em- 
ploy those  substances  that  are  capable  of  combining  with 
oxygen,  directly  or  indirectly,  and  are  also  capable  of  impart- 
ing hydrogen  to  the  indigo.  These  substances  are,  pab'tel, 
woad,  madder,  and  weld.  Madder,  when  brought  into  con- 
tact with  an  alkali,  gives  a  violet  tint,  and  by  the  addition  of 
indigo,  it  gives  a  still  deeper  shade.  The  weld  is  richer  in 
oxidizable  principles  than  either  pastel  or  woad  ;  it  turns  sour 
and  very  soon  passes  into  putrefactive  fermentation.  A  great 
number  of  dyers  in  Europe  use  weld  very  freely,  l)iit  the 
others  who  use  it  at  all  in  these  vats,  employ  the  same  amount 
of  it  that  they  do  of  bran,  and  others  do  not  use  it  at  all. 

The  size  of  a  pastel-vat,  as  a  general  rule,  is  the  same  as  a 
woad-vat ;  that  is,  seven  feet  deep  and  six  feet  in  diameter. 
This  is  filled  with  water  to  within  one  foot  of  the  top,  and 
heated  to  180°  Fahr.,  the  materials  being  300  lbs.  pastel,  20 
lbs.  madder,  12  lbs.  bran,  9  lbs.  lime  (ware),  and*  40  lbs. 
indigo. 

The  pastel  being  very  dry  and  hard,  is  first  pounded  to. 
pieces  (some  dyers  maintain  that  the  pounding  of  the  pastel  is 
injurious,  and  this  opinion  deserves  attention) ,  and  then  thrown 
into  the  vat  along  with  the  madder  and  bran,  then  raked  up 
for  half  an  hour ;  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  hours  it  is 
again  raked,  and  the  nine  pounds  of  ware  added,  so  as  to 
form  a  sort  of  alkaline  lye,  which  will  hold  the  indigo  in 
solution.  After  the  above  raking,  and  the  adding  of  the  lime, 
it  is  allowed  to  rest  four  or  five  hours.     After  this  leni^th  of 


358  THE    AMERIC^VN   DYER. 

time  hns  elapsed,  it  is  raked  again,  and  you  will  find  that  it 
has  the  peculiar  odor  of  the  pastel,  and  its  color  is  a  yellow- 
ish-brown. In  twenty-four  hours  from  this  raking,  the  fer- 
mentive  process  will  be  observable ;  the  liquid  will  have  an 
ammoniacal  odor,  yet  at  the  same  time  you  will  distinguish  the 
odor  of  the  pastel,  and  the  color  will  be  a  yellowish-red  ;  the 
flurree  has  .commenced  to  collect  at  the  farther  side  of  the  vat ; 
a  brilliant  pellicle  covers  the  smooth  surface  of  the  vat,  hav- 
ing a  greasy  appearance.  Underneath  this,  you  will  also  see 
blue  or  almost  black  veins,  which  are  owing  to  some  particles 
of  indigo  contained  in  the  pastel  naturally.  If  you  should 
now  take  some  of  the  liquid  and  turn  it  upon  a  piece  of  glass, 
you  Avould  see  the  yellow  color  disappear,  and  the  blue  of  the 
indigo  take  its  place.  This,  we  all  know%  is  caused  by  the 
absorption  of  oxygen  from  the  atmosphere,  by  the  little  indi- 
gogen  in  the  pastel.  If  all  these  appearance  occur,  they  are 
a  sure  criterion  that  the  fermentation  is  properl}'  established, 
and  that  the  vat  is  now  ready  for  its  indigo,  and  that  there  is 
enough  hydrogen  formed  to  dissolve  the  indigo.  We  now 
add  the  forty  pounds  of  indigo  (sixt}'  pounds  if  for  very  full 
blues)  :  it  is  now  thoroughly  raked  up,  and  if  the  temperature 
is  below  130^,  turn  on  the  steam  until  it  reaches  that  tempera- 
ture, at  which  heat  keep  it  during  all  the  time  that  you  may 
work  it.  Add  with  the  indigo,  seven  pounds  of  ware,  and  after 
raking  and  heating  up,  if  needed,  as  above,  cover  it  up  and 
let  it  re^  for  three  or  four  hours.  After  this  time  has  elapsed, 
look  at  the  vat  and  see  if  there  is  not  a  large  amount  of  tlurree 
and  a  copper-colored  pellicle  covering  the  smooth  surface  of 
the  liquid  (the  same  as  with  the  woad-vat).  The  dark  veins 
are  larger  than  they  were  previously,  and  the  liquid  is 
of  a  deep  yellow-red  color,  and  will  have  an  emerald-green 
color,  as  j'ou  turn  some  of  it  from  the  dish  back  into  the 
vat.  The  odor  of  the  vat  will  perhaps  have  a  vapid  smell ; 
if  so,  give  five  pounds  of  ware,  and  rake  up  :  but  if  it  has  an 
ammoniacal  odor,  it  is  to  he  raked  onl\'.  After  the  vat  is 
settled,  it  should  be  ready  to  work. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  350 

For  further  instructions  in  regard  to  the  manner  of  working- 
it  from  clay  to  day,  see  article,  Woad-vat,  as  there  is  but  lit- 
tle, if  any  difference  in  the  phenomena  of  a  pastel-vat  from 
that  of  a  woad-vat.  There  is,  however,  a  great  difference  in 
the  color  of  the  wool  from  the  two  vats,  in  this  particular 
point — the  temperature  of  the  pastel-vat  requires  a  very 
uniform  heat,  for  if  it  is  too  hot,  the  wool  will  have  a  red 
tinge  (but  not  so  with  the  woad-vat),  and  it  will  cause  the 
pastel  to  ferment  very  rapidly. 

Woad  and  pastel  vats  are  very  prone  to  run  to  the  putre- 
factive state  of  fermentation,  which  is  owing  mostly  to  the 
nitrogenous  matters  contained  in  the  woad  and  pastel,  they 
of  themselves  being  vegetable,  for  which  reason  they  require 
greater  care  and  skill  in  their  management. 

Indigo,  if  exposed  to  putrid  fermentation,  is  decomposed, 
and  loses  its  blue  color ;  if  rendered  soluble,  it  will  obey  the 
impulse  communicated  to  the  nitrogenous  matters  with  which 
it  is  brought  into  contact,  although  indigo,  if  macerated  in 
water  at  its  common  temperature,  is  with  great  difficulty  de- 
composed. If  fermentation  is  allowed  to  continue  unchecked, 
the  solution  will  turn  to  a  yellow  color,  the  flurree  becomes 
white,  it  will  smell  stale  and  lose  all  its  ammoniacal  odor,  and 
in  a  very  few  days  the  color  is  whitish,  and  the  smell  is  at 
first  like  putrefied  flesh,  then  not  unlike  the  odor  of  rotten 
eggs,  and  free  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  The  use  of  lime  in 
the  woad  and  pastel  vats,  is  to  prevent  such  an  occurrence, 
as  well  as  for  neutralizing  the  carbonic  acid  created  by  fer- 
mentation. 

There  are  some  dyers  who  set  a  pastel-vat  as  follows  : — 

The  vat  is  filled  with  water,  and  then  heated  to  the  boiling- 
point.  There  is  then  thrown  in  400  lbs.  pastel  (previously 
pounded  up),  22  lbs.  madder,  17  lbs.  weld,  13  lbs.  bran,  and 
it  is  then  boiled  for  half  an  hour,  after  which  there  is  adiled 
sufficient  cold  water  to  reduce  the  temperature  to  130- ;  it  is 
then  raked  up  for  an  hour,  the  vat  is  then  covered   up  and 


360  THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 

allowed  to  rest  for  six  hours ;  after  this  time  has  elapsed,  it  is 
again  raked  for  half  an  hour ;  this  raking  is  repeated  every 
three  hours  until  the  surfiice  of  the  vat  shows  blue  veius ; 
there  is  then  added  eight  pounds  of  slacked  lime  (ware). 

The  color  of  the  vat  now  assumes  a  blackish-blue,  and  then 
the  indigo  is  added  to  it ;  the  amount  of  which  is  in  propor- 
tion to  the  depth  of  shade  required,  as  follows  : — 

11  to  13  lbs.  for  100  lbs.  of  fine  wool  for  a  medium  blue. 
30  to  40  lbs.  for  100  lbs.  fine  wool  for  a  full  blue. 

The  dyer  who  communicated  to  me  the  above  method,  says 
that  the  following  are  the  characteristics  of  the  vat :  The  color 
of  the  vat  is  a  fine  golden-yellow,  its  surface  having  a  blue 
flurree  and  a  copper-colored  pellicle  ;  on  agitating  it,  there 
will  be  bubbles  of  air  escape,  which  should  burst  very  slowly  ; 
if  quickly,  it  wants  more  ware.  The  sediment  at  the  bottom 
will  be  green  when  first  drawn  up,  and  should  turn  a  brown 
color  in  the  air;  if  it  should  remain  green,  it  shows  the  want 
of  more  ware  ;  and  lastly,  it  should  have  the  odor  of  indigo 
instead  of  the  odor  of  fhe  pastel. 

In  America,  pastel  is  known  by  the  name  of  ball  or  Ger- 
man woad.     (See  article.  Pastel.) 


POTASH-YAT,  SOMETIMES  CALLED  ASH-VAT. 

This  vat  is  usually  of  the  same  size  as  the  woad-vat^  but 
we  have  seen  them  nearly  one-third  larger.  The  vat  is  filled 
with  water,  and  heated  to  180°  or  190°.  The  materials  used  are, 
fifteen  lbs.  of  madder,  thirt}^  quarts  of  bran,  twenty-five  lbs.  pot- 
ash or  pearlash,  and  twenty  lbs.  of  indigo.  In  the  first  place 
throw  in  the  bran  and  madder,  rake  it  up,  and  in  three  or  four 
hours  add  the  indigo  and  potash  ;  rake  it  up  well,  until  all  the 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  3G1 

materials  are  well  mixed.  Let  this  be  all  completed  by  the  mid- 
dle of  the  afternoon.  By  eight  o'clock  the  next  morning  it 
should  show  signs  of  having  sprung  its  indigo.  Now  rake  it 
up  again  ;  then  rake  it  again  about  four  o'clock  in  the  after- 
Doon,  and  cover  it  up  for  the  night.  Do  not  allow  the  heat 
to  fall  below  130°  Fahr. 

Ou  the  following  morning  dip  in  a  lock  of  wool,  for  fifteen 
or  twenty  minutes,  and  if  it  comes  out  a  thin-looking  green 
color,  and  in  the  course  of  three  or  four  minutes  it  turns  to  a 
grayish-looking  blue,  and  the  liquid  has  a  dark  bluish-green 
color,  it  is  in  need  of  greater  fermenting  force.  In  this  case 
take  out  of  the  vat  half  a  barrel  of  the  liquor,  and  put  into  it  six 
quarts  of  bran,  three  lbs.  of  hops,  and  three  quarts  of  molasses, 
and  boil  it  for  half  an  hour,  being  careful  that  it  does  not  boil 
over.  After  boiling,  add  three  lbs.  of  madder,  and  when  it 
has  settled  turn  the  clear  liquor  into  the  vat,  and  then  rake 
up  well  ;  in  the  afternoon  rake  again.  Next  day  it  should  be 
ready  to  color  in. 

Should  the  lock  of  wool  which  you  have  tried  in  the  vat 
come  out  a  fair-looking  green,  and  turn  to  a  blue  in  four  or 
five  minutes,  and  yet  not  be  so  good  a  blue  as  you  would  de- 
sire, it  is  evident  that  the  materials  are  correctly  propor- 
tioned, and  that  it  only  requires  a  little  more  time  to  produce 
the  correct  eflfect ;  and  all  that  it  requires  is  a  good  raking 
up,  which  do,  and  then  rake  again  in  the  afternoon  ;  and  the 
next  morning  you  may  commence  coloring  in  it. 

We  can  obtain  the  deep  blues  in  this  vat  with  greater  celer- 
ity than  in  any  of  the  others,  which  fact,  no  doubt,  depends 
upon  the  great  power  potash  has  of  dissolving  indigo,  over 
that  possessed  by  lime.  Experience  has  demonstrated  that 
the  ash-vat  has  the  advantage  as  regards  celerity  of  nearly 
one-third,  but  this  advantage  is  balanced  by  the  inconvenience 
it  places  us  under  when  we  want  to  get  light  shades. 

We  can  color  a  larger  quantity  of  wool  at  a  time  in  an  ash- 
vat,  than  we  can  in  the  woad-vat,  as  the  ash-vat  has  no  sedi- 
ment to  speak  of,  or  none  in  comparison  to  a  woad-vat,  and 

46 


362  ,        THE    AMERICAX    DYER. 

the  trammel  and  net  can  be  suspended  lower  in  the  vat  with- 
out touching  the  sediment.  The  manipulations  are  the  same 
in  working  an  ash-vat  as  for  a  woad-vat.  Care  should  be 
taken  in  regard  to  coloring  too  much  in  one  day,  as  it  will 
tire  the  vat.  Should  you  overwork  it  by  this  extra  coloring, 
you  will  lose  more  time  in  getting  the  vat  in  good  condition 
again  than  you  have  gained  in  doing  so  much  in  it,  besides 
the  extra  expense  of  materials  to  restore  it  to  its  former  con- 
dition. After  doing  a  day's  work  in  the  vat,  it  should  be 
examined  three  or  four  hours  after  it  is  raked  in  the  after- 
noon, in  order  that  you  may  know  whether  it  requires  more 
potash,  or  bran  and  madder.  If  it  is  too  ojien,  and  the  indigo 
does  not  seem  to  be  in  solution,  you  must  serve  it  with  ware; 
but  should  the  liquor  have  a  deep  blue-green  color,  give  mad- 
der and  bran,  or  a  ferment  made  as  above  described.  In 
either  case,  your  judgment  and  experience  must  dictate  the 
kind  as  well  as  quantit}'^  of  materials  that  the  vat  requires. 

After  working  the  vat  a  couple  of  days,  you  must  give  it 
more  indigo,  in  order  to  keep  it  up  to  its  proper  strength; 
give  as  much  indigo  as,  in  your  judgment,  the  wool  that  has 
been  colored  has  taken  out  of  the  vat ;  and,  at  the  same  time, 
give  as  much  potash  (in  weight)  as  you  do  of  indigo,  and 
half  as  much  madder  and  bran.  You  can  proceed  so  from 
day  to  day,  making  these  additions,  alivays  after  you  have 
finished  coloring  for  the  da}',  or  you  may  serve  every  other 
day.  Some  dyers  prefer  to  renew  the  vat  every  day,  w'hile 
others  every  three  or  four  daj^s  ;  but  in  either  case,  keep  the 
vat  up  to  its  regular  standard,  and  in  good  working  order, 
until  such  time  as  you  think  it  should  be  worked  out  and 
reset ;  then  you  will  proceed  as  above,  only  leaving  off  serv- 
ing with  indisro. 

We  can  easily  discern  the  inferiority  of  the  wool  colored 
in  an  ash-vat,  from  that  colored  in  either  the  woad  or  pastel 
vat,  in  beauty,  durability,  or  solidity  of  color.  It  is  more 
expensive  (for  the  reason  given  in  regard  to  the  German  or 
soda  vat),  and  does  not  possess  any  of  those  kindly  qualities 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  3G3 

which  arc  conimunioatod  to  the  wool  when  colored  in  the 
above-nanuHl  vats.  A  great  paucity  of  color  \s  also  percep- 
tible ;  and  the  wool,  M'hen  you  look  down  upon  it,  is  darker 
than  wool  colored  in  a  woad-vat ;  but  if  held  up,  and  viewed 
by  a  transmitted  liirht,  it  looks  gray  and  devoid  of  intensity, 
and  has  no  vivacity  of  shade. 

The  reason  of  this  is,  that  the  particles  of  indigo  being 
coarser,  and  being  farther  apart  than  they  are  with  a  ivoaded 
vat,  and  lying  more  loosely  upon  the  fibre  of  the  wool,  there 
is  no  under-color  such  as  the  woad  will  give  to  wool. 

These  objections  to  an  ash-colored  wool  are  thus  accounted 
for :  In  the  ash-vat  the  solvent  of  the  indigo  is  a  fixed 
alkali  (it  being  pfttash),  while  the  solvent  in  the  woad-vat 
is  a  volatile  alkali  (ammonia)  ;  the  potash  forms  a  coarser 
or  thicker  solution,  causing  the  particles  of  indigo  not  to  be 
so  finely  attenuated,  the  solution  of  potash  being  so  coarse 
that  it  prevents  the  particles  of  indigo  from  penetrating  into 
the  fibre  of  the  wool,  and  lays  them  on  the  outside  of  the 
wool  in  a  loose  and  scattered  condition.  In  the  case  of  woaCl- 
colored  wool  it  is  entirely  different,  for  as  the  ammonia 
(in  the  woad-vat),  being  the  solvent  of  the  indigo,  is 
finer  and  a  stronger  alkali,  it  naturally  divides  the  coloring 
molecules  in  a  more  minute  and  multifarious  manner;  and  it 
also  being  of  a  subtle  nature,  it  will  penetrate  the  fibre  of  the 
wool  much  better,  and  these  finely  divided  particles  combine 
more  intimately  with  the  wool ;  the  indigo  being  divided  into 
a  greater  number  of  surfaces  is  more  deeply  coml)ined  with 
the  wool,  which  accounts  for  its  superior  brilliancy  and  per- 
manency, as  the  greater  the  quantity  of  reflected  surfaces  there 
is  to  vie\y,  and  the  more  minute  is  the  division  in  any  color, 
the  higher  will  be  the  intensity  of  the  shade. 

Wool  colored  in  an  ash-vat  always  works  harsh  in  carding 
and  spinning,  no  matter  in  how  good  a  condition  the  vat  may 
be,  whether  you  use  for  the  alkali  potash  or  carbonate  of  soda, 
although  the  soda  is  a  milder  and  softer  alkali  (it  containing 
more  carbonic  acid  is  why  it  is  milder)  ;  but  for  all  that,  wool 


364  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

colored  in  an  ash-vat  will  always  be  harsh  and  tender,  and 
the  goods,  after  being  finished,  will  never  look  so  well,  or  feel 
so  soft,  as  when  the  wool  is  colored  in  a  woad-vat. 

The  ash-vat  is  now  seldom  used,  except  in  small  mills,  for 
coloring  wool ;  but  it  is  used  to  a  large  extent  for  coloring 
cotfon-yarns,  for  bedtickings  and  denims. 


GERMAN   OR   SODA  VAT. 

This  vat  is  of  the  same  dimensions  as  the  woad-vat.  It  is 
filled  with  water  and  heated  up  to  200°  Fahr.  ;  there  is  then 
thrown  into  it  twenty-five  pounds  of  carbonate  of  soda,  fifteen 
pounds  of  indigo,  seven  pounds  of  ware,  and  one  and  a  half 
to  two  bushels  of  wheat-bran  ;  it  is  then  raked  up  well,  and 
left  for  two  or  three  hours  ;  it  has  to  be  watched  carefully 
during  the  progress  of  fermentation,  regulating  it  by  giving  it 
either  ware  or  soda;  and,  if  correctly  managed,  it  will  be 
ready  to  color  in  after  fifteen  or  eighteen  hours  from  the  time 
it  was  set. 

The  smell  is  the  only  criterion  to  be  governed  by  (which  is  a 
strong  ammoniacal  odor),  as  sometimes  the  solution  will  be  of 
a  grass-green  color,  at  other  times  a  deep  olive  color,  and 
still  the  vat  will  be  in  good  working  order;  so  it  would  not 
always  do  judge  by  the  looks  of  the  liquid  in  regard  to 
the  condition  of  the  vat.  This  vat  requires  greater  care,  and 
is  more  difficult  to  manage,  than  the  potash-vat;  it  differs 
from  the  potash-vat,  as  the  potash  is  replaced  by  the  crystal- 
lized carbonate  of  soda  and  caustic  lime,  the  lime  giving  to 
the  carbonate  of  soda  a  caustic  nature. 

The  German,  or  soda  vat,  will  do  more  work,  in  a  given 
time,  than  any  other  vat  that  I  ev-er  worked ;  but  it  is  not  so 
economical  as  other  vats,  so  far  as  the  amount  of  indigo  used 
is  concerned,  as  you  have  to  color  the  wool  so  much  darker 
than  the  pattern  you  have  to  match,  as  the  indigo  lies  more 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  3G5 

loosely  upon  the  wool,  and  does  not  penetrate  into  the  fabric 
of  the  wool  like  the  woad  or  pastel  vat,  losing  more  indigo  in 
the  operation  of  fulling  and  scouring  than  the  wool  does  that 
has  been  colored  in  either  of  the  above-named  blue-vats.  The 
manipulations  in  working  a  soda-vat  are  the  same  as  in  work- 
ing the  other  vats.  When  indigo  is  added,  bran,  lime,  and 
soda  are  added  also,  so  as  to  constantly  maintain  the  fer- 
mentation at  a  suitable  point.  (See  Fermentation  of  the 
Woad-vat.) 


BRAN  AND  MADDER   VAT. 

This  vat  we  have  used  to  a  great  extent,  and,  for  a  dyer 
who  has  but  little  experience  in  working  a  blue-vat,  it  is  the 
best  one  for  him  to  set  and  use,  it  being  both  simple  and  easy 
to  work,  which  any  dyer  will  be  convinced  of  after  perus- 
ing the  method  of  setting  and  working  it  from  day  to  day. 

The  dimensions  of  the  vat  are  as  follows  :  six  and  a  half 
feet  deep  and  five  and  a  half  feet  diameter ;  this  is  filled  with 
water  and  heated  to  170°  Fahr.  In  the  forenoon  you  com- 
mence to  set  it  by  throwing  in  six  bushels  of  bran,  twenty- 
five  pounds  of  madder,  two  pails  of  molasses  (the  poorer  the 
molasses  the  better)  ;  rake  these  materials  up  for  half  an  hour, 
then  cover  up  the  vat.  In  the  afternoon,  at  three  o'clock, 
rake  up  again. 

The  next  morning,  at  eight  o'clock,  add  two  quarts  of 
ware  and  two  pails  of  indigo  (previously  ground  in  the  mill 
with  water),  —  which  is  about  twenty  pounds  in  the  dry 
state;  rake  up  well.  At  3  p.  m.,  add  two  quarts  of  icare 
and  one  pail  of  molasses  ;  rake  up  well. 

The  next  morning  add  three  quarts  of  ware ;  rake  up.  At 
4  r.  M.,  add  six  quarts  of  tvare  and  rake  up. 

Keep  the  heat  up  all  the  time  to  135<^. 

The  next  morning  (or  fourth  day),  at  eight  o'clock,  add 
six  quarts  of  tcare  and  a  half  pail  of  indigo  ;  rake    up  ;  then 


366  THE    AMEEICAN    DYEl?. 

rake  up  again  at  eleven  o'clock,  then  at  two  (/clock,  then  at 
four  o'clock  ;  at  each  raking  add  two  quarts  of  ivare.  The 
next  morning  it  should  be  ready  to  color  in  ;  the  liquor  will 
be  of  a  yellowish-green  color,  the  flurree  will  be  copper- 
colored  and  will  lie  well  to  the  backside  of  the  vat ;  on  dip- 
ping the  dish  into  the  liquid,  with  the  edge  downwards,  and 
taking  it  out,  the  liquid  will  hang,  like  thin  syrup,  from 
the  edge  of  the  dish,  as  it  does  from  a  woad-vat,  and  will 
have  the  same  ammoniacal  odor ;  its  characteristics  are  the 
same  as  a  woad-vat,  with  the  exception  of  the  color  of  the 
liquid,  which  is  more  yellow. 

After  the  first  day's  coloring,  and  you  are  raking  up  for 
the  last  time,  add  two  pails  of  indigo,  one  quart  of  molasses, 
and  one  pail  of  ferment,  and  rake  up  well. 

.  To  INIake  the  Ferment. 

In  a  barrel  of  water  put  six  quarts  of  madder  and  six 
quarts  of  bran,  boil  these  for  one  hour  (but  care  must  be 
taken  that  it  dbes  not  boil  over),  let  it  settle,  and  use  the 
clear  solution  ;  or  you  can  stir  it  up  and  use  it  that  way  ;  this 
is  optional  with  your  own  views. 

After  the  first  day's  coloring,  when  working  the  vat,  give, 
one  day,  three  pails  of  the  ferment;  the  next  day,  one  quart 
of  molasses,  and  so  on  each  alternate  day. 

Give  indigo  according  to  the  amount  taken  up  by  the  wool, 
in  which  your  judgment  must  dictate  (for  full  blues,  about 
five  pounds  for  every  hundred  pounds  of  clean  wool). 

Give  five  quarts  of  lime  {ware)  for  every  hundred  pounds 
of  clean  wool,  or  five  pounds  each  day  ;  the  vat  must  be 
■worked  very  open,  or,  as  dyers  say,  soft.  There  is  very 
little  danger  of  losing  such  a  vat,  as  the  fermenting  powers  of 
the  bran  and  madder  are  weak  and  are  soon  exhausted.  A 
large  amount  of  wool  can  be  dyed  in  a  day  in  this  vat,  as  it  is 
ready  to  dip  again  in  one  hour  after  raking;  yet  it  is  not 
economy  to  dip  over  three  times  a  day  in  it.    Fifty  pounds  of 


THE    AMEIUCAN   DYER.  SG7 

clean  wool. is  sufficient  to  tlij)  at  one  time.    ThemanipnlsitiouB 
are  the  same  as  in  a  woad-vut. 


SAL-SODA   BLUE-VAT. 

Dimensions  :  seven  feet  deep,  six  feet  diameter. 

Heat  the  vat  to  130°  Fahr.,  then  add  two  and  a  half  pound^i 
of  indigo,  thirty-three  pounds  of  sul-soda,  and  thirty-six 
pounds  of  bran  ;  rake  tliose  materials  up  well,  cover  up  the 
vat  and  let  it  remain  twelve  hours  ;  then  add  two  and  a  half 
pounds  of  slacked  lime  (ware)  ;  rake  up  again  ;  if  the  heat 
is  not  up  to  130°,  heat  it  up  to  that  temperature,  and  leave  it 
covered  up  for  twenty-four  hours.  By  this  time  the  solution 
should  be  of  a  yellowish-green  color,  the  flurree  of  a  blue,  cop- 
pery shade,  and  the  li(juid  should  have  a  sharp,  pleasant  odor. 
Now  immerse  a  lock  of  wool  in  the  liquid  for  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes  ;  it  should  coine  out  a  clear,  deep  green,  and  change 
to  a  blue  very  quickly  by  the  air.  After  the  green  has  passed 
off,  dip  the  lock  into  the  liquid  again  for  the  same  length  of 
time,  and  when  taken  out,  if  it  has  not  gained  in  depth  of 
color,  add  icare  to  the  vat,  or  it  will  become  putrid  ;  which 
you  will  soon  observe,  as  the  flurree  will  become  colorless,  the 
liquid  will  have  a  fetid  smell,  and  the  deposit  of  the  vat  will 
contain  no  particles  of  indigo  ;  but  in  giving  the  ware  be 
careful  and  not  give  too  great  a  quantity,  as  by  so  doing 
you  will  stop  the  fermentation  too  soon.  If  you  should  over- 
charge the  vat  with  ware,  you  must  add  bran  to  start  the  fer- 
mentation again  ;  and  after  giving  bran  in  this  instance,  do 
not  give  any  ware  under  twenty-four  or  thirty  hours  after  giv- 
ing the  bran.  In  adding  the  ware  in  sufficient  quantities  the 
vat  grows  better  and  the  liquid  more  3'ellow,  the  flurree  more 
blue  and  persistent ;  the  amount  of  ware  necessary  to  bring 
the  vat  to  a  state  of  perfection  should  be  from  sixteen  to 
twenty  pounds.     When  adding  indigo,  after  the  setting  of  the 


368  THE  a:mericax  dyer. 

vat,  you  should  add  one  pound  of  molasses,  one  pound  of 
sal-soda,  and  seven  pounds  of  ware,  to  every  two  and  a  half 
pounds  of  indigo  added. 

If  the  vat  is  used  every  day,  the  above  materials  should  be 
added  each  day  after  coloring,  in  the  afternoon,  and  on  the 
following  morning,  if  the  vat  is  in  a  good  state  ;  if  the  liquid 
is  yellow  and  the  bran  does  not  rise  to  the  surface,  if  there  is 
no  sign  of  fermentation,  do  not  give  any  ware  for  twelve 
hours.  This  kind  of  a  vat  is  used  for  four  or  five  months, 
and  when  it  is  to  be  re-set  they  take  up  the  sediment  from 
the  bottom  and  preserve  the  liquid  for  a  new  vat,  and  it  needs 
but  one-half  the  materials  to  start  another  vat. 

The  temperature  for  working  is  from  110°  to  119°,  but  the 
higher  the  temperature  the  darker  and  more  violet  will  be  the 
color.  This  vat  is  from  a  French  dyer  named  Grison,  who 
was  a  pupil  of  Chevreul,  and  has  been  a  practical  dyer  for 
forty  years  ;  he  is  also  a  good  chemist. 


TIN=(Sn). 

*  Tin,  in  its  color  and  lustre,  is  the  nearest  to  silver  of  any 
of  the  metals,  only  differing  in  lustre  by  having  a  somewhat 
bluer  hue.  It  exhibits  a  high  metallic  lustre,  similar  to  silver. 
Tin  is  one  of  the  few  metals  known  to  man  in  the  antediluvian 
period  of  his  existence,  and  was  extensively  used  in  all  coun- 
tries having  any  pretensions  to  civilization. 

Tin  does  not  occur  naturally  in  a  metallic  state.  It  is 
found  as  oxide  in  tinstone  or  tin  ore  (SnO^),  containing  79 
per  cent,  of  metal,  and  as  sulphuret  of  tin  in  combination  with 
other  metallic  sulphurets  in  tin  pyrites.  Tin  ore  is  found  either 
interspersed  in  veins,  or  in  secondary  formations  deposited 
by  water,  and  in  the  alluvial  deposits  formed  by  the  washing 
away  of  fragments  of  the  primary  rocks.  These  ores  are  not, 
as  a  rule,  simply  composed  of  pure  oxide  of  tin,  but  contain 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  869 

various  other  metallic  compounds,  —  such  as  sulphur,  arsenic, 
zinc,  iron,  and  copper.  In  some  instances,  tin  ore  is  found 
in  Cornwall,  Malacca,  and  Banca,  in  the  beds  of  the  rivers, 
and  the  tin  thus  found  is  very  pure,  because  the  mechanical 
separation  of  the  ore  from  its  impurities  has  been  performed 
by  nature  itself,  and,  as  a  consequence,  these  ores  yield  a 
purer  metal  than  the  ore  obtained  from  veins,  which  has  to 
undergo  the  process  of  dressing,  washing,  and  roasting  pre- 
viously to  being  smelted,  to  get  rid  of  the  arsenic,  sulphur, 
and  antimony. 

The  tin  ore  found  in  Cornwall  County,  England,  has,  for 
over  two  thousand  years,  yielded  tin.  This  tin  has  to  be 
smelted  in  accordance  with  an  ancient  stannary  law.  The 
stronger  and  purer  the  tin  is,  the  more  it  crackles,  or  creaks, 
when  it  is  bent.  When  rubbed  with  the  hands,  it  imparts  to 
them  a  very  peculiar  odor.  A  cubic  foot  of  tin  weighs  — 
according  to  its  purity  —  from  three  hundred  and  seventy-five 
to  four  hundred  pounds.  The  specific  gravity  of  pure  tin  is 
1.280,  and,  by  hammering,  can  be  increased  to  1.290.  It 
fuses  at  228°,  and  boils  at  442°  Fahr.  It  is  then  at  a  white 
heat,  and  if  kept  at  this  heat  in  contact  with  the  air,  it  will 
become  covered  with  a  grayish  coating,  which  is  a  finely 
divided  metal,  called  tin-ash,  and  protoxide  of  tin.  This  sub- 
stance will  be  converted  into  stannic  oxide  —  known  as  putty- 
powder —  if  the  heating  of  the  tin  is  continued  for  a  short 
time  after  this  substance  has  formed  upon  it. 

We  might  give  a  description  of  the  difierent  combinations 
and  applications  of  tin,  but  we  will  omit  them,  as  they  are 
not  applicable  to  our  particular  branch  of  science,  or  to  the 
art  of  dyeing. 

Tin  is  known  by  the  names  of  common  tin,  block  tin,  and 
grain  tin.  The  latter  is  the  only  kind  fit  for  the  purpose  of 
making  tin-solutions.  It  is  brought  from  England  in  large 
ingots ;  then  melted  and  moulded  into  small,  slender  bars, 
and  in  this  form  it  is  received  by  the  dyer. 

47 


370  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

Tin-Solutions,  or  Stannous  Chlorides ^(SnCli). 
Observations  on  Making  Tin- Solutions. 

In  preparing  these  solutions,  you  must,  in  the  first  place, 
have  the  tin  well  granulated,  or  feathered,  and  it  should  be  of 
the  best  kind  (see  article,  Tin).  The  tin  must  be  added  to 
the  acid  at  intervals,  and  a  small  quantity  at  a  time,  so  that  it 
may  be  dissolved  with  as  little  disengagement  of  the  acid-gas 
as  possible,  and  the  solution  should  be  kept  at  as  low  a  tem- 
perature as  is  compatible  Avith  the  combination  of  the  acids 
and  tin.  These  observations  apply  with  the  greatest  force  in 
making  nitro-muriate  of  tin. 

In  dissolving  tin  in  muriatic  acid,  you  will  sometimes 
notice  that  when  the  tin  is  in  solution,  some  parts  of  the  tin 
are  dissolved,  while  some  of  it  seems  to  be  covered  with  a 
crystalline  substance  which  you  have  a  great  deal  of  ditficulty  to 
dissolve,  and  it  occasions  both  loss  and  annoyance.  This  can 
be  avoided  by  stirring  the  solutions  at  intervals.  This  coat- 
ing of  the  tin  is  caused  by  one  part  of  the  solution  becoming 
denser  than  some  other  portions,  —  an  action  of  a  galvanic 
nature  being  induced  between  those  parts  of  the  tin  in  the 
stronger  portion  and  the  parts  in  the  weaker  portion  of  the 
Solution,  causing  a  deposit  of  oxide  of  tin  upon  the  metal  in 
the  weaker  portion  of  the  solution. 

The  preparation  of  these  solutions  is  a  matter  of  much  pride 
among  dyers,  and  every  dyer  will  have  some  little  peculiarity 
in  making  them  that  he  keeps  to  hin^self,  as  a  great  secret, 
and  on  the  strength  of  which  he  thinks  his  success  depends. 
These  little  j^ec?<?2'ar«7?'es  are  nothing  more  than  the  propor- 
tioning of  the  acid  and  the  tin,  and  the  way  of  mixing  them. 

The  first  process  of  preparing  the  solutions  of  tin  is  to 
feather  the  tin,  which  is  done  by  melting  the  bar  in  an  iron 
ladle,  or  some  other  convenient  utensil.  After  it  is  melted, 
pour  it  into  a  vessel  filled  with  cold  water,  holding  the  melted 
tin  as  high  as  possible,  so  that  it  may  pour  in  drops  into  the 
water.     In  this  state,  a  very  extended  surface  of  the  metal  is 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  371 

exposed  to  the  action  of  the  acid.  In  giving  the  tin,  I  do  not 
always  go  by  the  weight,  hut  give  enough  to  saturate  all  the 
acid.  Crystals  of  tin  —  or  tin-salts  as  they  are  termed  in  the 
trade,  and  understood  to  be  chloride  of  tin  — are  muriate  of  tin 
crystallized  by  evaporation,  and  their  formula  is  SnCl2+2PI^O, 
while  the  formula  for  chloride  of  tin  is  SnCl.,.  To  prepare 
cr^'stals  of  tin  correctly,  nuiriatic  acid-gas  should  be  caused  to 
act  on  granulated  tin  placed  in  earthenware  receivers,  and  the 
concentrated  tin-salt  solution  thus  obtained  evaporated  in 
block-tin  vessels. 

These  crystals  are  colorless  and  transparent,  and  very  de- 
liquescent, and  of  course  very  soluble  in  water.  When  they 
are  dissolved  in  water,  and  left  to  stand  awhile,  there  will  be 
a  deposit  of  basic  salt,  but  l)y  adding  some  muriatic  or  tartaric 
acid  to  the  solution,  the  basic  salt  will  dissolve  again. 

The  introduction  of  tin  as  a  mordant  for  the  scarlet  shades, 
is  considered  as  forming  an  era  in  the  art  of  dyeing.  Ber- 
thollett,  in  his  "Elements  of  Dyeing,"  speaks  of  it  as  follows  : 
"A  short  time  after  cochineal  became  known  in  England,  the 
scarlet  process,  by  means  of^tin  solution,  was  discovered. 
About  the  year  1G30,  Cornelius  Drebbel  observed,  by  an  acci- 
dental mixture,  the  brilliancy  which  the  solution  of  tin  gave 
to  a  solution  of  cochineal.  He  communicated  this  discovery 
to  his  son-in-law,  Kuffeler,  a  dyer  in  Leyden.  He  improved 
upon  the  process,  kept  it  a  secret  from  his  fellow-workmen, 
and  brou<2:ht  into  vogue  the  color  which  bore  his  name."  "A 
few  years  afterwards  a  German  chemist  found  out  the  process, 
and  l)rought  his  secret  to  London  about  the  year  1643."  "It 
was  soon  known  and  diffused  over  Europe,  and  afterwards 
whenever  a  new  dye-drug  was  introduced,  the  solution  of  tin 
was  always  applied  to  it,  and  it  became  a  standard  mordant 
for  the  red  dyewoods,  and  even  for  logwood,  on  cottons." 

I  cannot  impress  too  strongly  upon  the  mind  of  the  dyer, 
the  necessity  of  the  care  and  judgment  requisite  in  prepaiing 
his  tin  solutions  ;  not  to  add  the  tin  to  the  acid  in  large  quan- 
tities, but  to  add  it  a  little  at  a  time,  and  when  that  is  dis- 


372  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

solved,  to  add  a  little  more,  and  so  on  until  he  has  given  all 
the  tin  to  the  acid,  and  let  the  solutions  be  at  least  twenty- 
four  hours  old  before  using  (unless  otherwise  recommended 
in  recipe  for  making  the  ditferent  solutions).  As  a  general 
thing,  dyers  are  in  too  great  haste  in  making  their  tin  solu- 
tions, and  will  throw  in  one  handful  of  tin  after  the  other, 
before  the  first  is  dissolved.  When  the  tin  is  added  in  this 
manner,  the  action  of  the  acids  upon  the  tin  will  become  vio- 
lent, and  too  much  heat  is  generated,  causing  a  great  loss  in 
the  strength  of  the  solution.  This  is  more  particularly  the 
case  in  making  nitro-muriate  of  tin,  for  if  too  much  heat  is 
generated,  it  decomposes  the  nitric  acid,  ammonia  is  then 
formed  in  the  solution,  and  when  it  becomes  cold,  a  large 
quantity  of  peroxidized  tin  precipitates  in  a  stick}^  silver- 
colored  and  gelatinous  mass,  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  and 
such  a  solution  will  never  give  a  good  clear  hue  to  the  color. 
The  slower  the  tin  is  dissolved,  the  more  permanent  the  solu- 
tion, and  brighter  the  colors. 

"Tin  combines  with  oxygen  in  three  different  proportions." 

"Protoxide  (SnO), 

"  Sesquioxide  (Sn203=:SnO,Sn02), 

"  Peroxide  (SnOo) ." 

Muriate  of  TiN=:(SnCl  +  2H0.) 
To  make  this  solution,  take  two  parts  by  weight  of  muriatic 
acid,  and  one  part  of  tin  (see  directions  for  making  tin  solu- 
tions, page  370).  Some  dyers  give  as  much  tin  as  the  acid 
will  eat,  let  it  be  more  or  less.  After  the  tin  is  all  dissolved, 
and  has  a  few  days'  age,  it  will  have  an  agreeable  and  fragrant 
smell,  and  a  sparkling,  glistening  appearance.  This  is  caused 
by  a  portion  of  the  solution  having  crystallized,  and  the  crys- 
tals are  floating  in  the  solution.  If  this  solution  is  evaporated 
by  gentle  heat,  the  water  in  the  solution  is  driven  off,  and  by 
cooling,  the  whole  would  crystallize.     It  is  then  called 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  873 

Crystals  of  TiN=:(SnCl2+2H,0). 

These  crystals  contain  three  proportions  of  water,  or  about 
twenty  per  cent.,  but  according  to  the  investigations  made 
by  Dr.  Penny,  they  contain  only  two  proportions,  or  fourteen 
per  cent,  of  water.     The  composition  of  muriate  of  tin  is — 

Tin  (Sn), 52.04 

Chlorine  (CI),  ...         .         .     31.81 

Water  (HO),  ....     1«.15=100 

Prime  equivalent,     .         .         .         .     14.46 
Specific  gravity,       .         .         .         .22.93 

MURIO-SULPHATE    OF   TiN. 

Take  two  parts  by  weight  of  muriatic  acid,  one  part  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  add  to  this  last  acid  as  much  water  as  the  weight 
of  the  acid,  and  when  it  has  cooled  from  the  heat  caused  by 
the  mixture  of  the  water  and  acid,  then  mix  this  with  the 
muriatic  acid,  and  add  one  part  of  tin. 

This  solution  is  sometimes  called  lac  spirits,  and  yellow 
spirits.  Some  dyers  use  sal-ammoniac  in  place  of  the  muria- 
tic acid  in  preparing  this  solution.  This  solution  is  seldom, 
if  ever,  used  on  cotton  yarn  or  cloth.  For  yellows  on  wool, 
I  do  not  think  so  good  and  bright  colors  can  be  produced  by 
using  the  sal-ammoniac,  as  those  yellows  that  have  for  their 
mordant  spirits  made  of  sulphuric  and  muriatic  acids.  For 
crimsons,  I  think  the  spirits  made  with  sal-ammoniac  and 
sulphuric  acid  are  preferable  to  the  muriate  or  murio-sulphate 
of  tin.     This  solution  crystallizes  like  the  muriate  of  tin. 

MURIO-SULPHATE    OF   TiN   FOR   LaC-DyE. 

Take  5  parts  of  hydrochloric  acid  (muriatic  acid,  HCl),  1 
part  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  1  part  of  tin  (all  by  weight),  and 
proceed  as  with  the  preceding  solution. 


374  THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 


NiTRO-MURIATE    OF    TiN. 

A  mixture  of  nitric  acid  and  muriatic  acid  will  dissolve 
about  one-half  its  whole  weio:ht  of  tin.  To  make  this  solu- 
tion, take  4  parts  of  nitric  acid  and  3  parts  of  muriatic  acid  ; 
mix  these  together,  then  add  1^  ounces  of  tin  to  the  pound 
of  acids  used. 

This  solution  ouijht  to  show  a  fine  amber-yellow  color  to  be 
in  the  greatest  perfection  for  coloring  scarlet  shades  ;  but  for 
yellows,  or  for  crimson  shades,  it  may  be  of  a  browner  yel- 
low color,  and  be  more  highly  charged  with  tin. 

Some  dyers  make  this  solution  thus  :  1  lb.  of  nitric  acid, 
3  lbs.  muriatic  acid,  and  add  tin   until  it  ceases  to  dissolve  it. 

This  solution  does  well  for  a  deep,  heavy  red,  when  hyper- 
nic  or  camwood  is  used  for  the  coloring-matter,  but  it  is  not 
suitable  for  reds  when  cochineal  or  lac  is  used.  If  3'^ou  want 
a  more  crimson  hue  to  the  red,  make  the  solution  of  1  lb. 
nitric  acid  and  5  lbs.  of  muriatic  acid  ;  mix  these  acids  to- 
gether, then  add  2^  ounces  of  tin  to  the  pound  of  mixed 
acids. 

Instead  of  using  muriatic  acid  for  preparing  this  solution, 
some  dyers  make  it  thus  :  6  lbs.  nitric  acid,  1  lb.  of  water,  1 
lb.  sal-ammoniac  ;  then  add  10  ounces  of  tin.  Note  that  the 
sal-ammoniac  is  dissolved  in  the  water  before  it  is  added  to 
the  acid. 

These  solutions  of  nitro-muriate  of  tin  cannot  be  crystal- 
lized. The  different  solutions  of  tin  are  now  seldom  pre- 
pared by  the  dyer,  but  are  purchased  already  prepared.  I 
would  advise  every  dyer  to  prepare  his  own  tin  solutions,  as 
he  will  then  be  certain  as  to  the  amount  of  tin  he  has  in  the 
solution  ;  while,  in  the  other  case,  he  is  not  certain  as  to  the 
amount  of  tin  there  is  to  the  acid  of  the  solution  he  is  usinff. 

Scarlet  Spirits. 
This  is  the  best  tin  solution  I  ever  use'd  for  scarlets,  and  is 
made  thus  :    4  quarts  of  nitric  acid,  1  quart  of  water,  and  1 


THE    AMERICAIN^    DYER.  675 

quart  of  muriatic  acid  ;    mix  these  three  articles  together, 
then  add  1%  ounces  of  tin. 

In  dyeing  use  as  much  of  this  solution  as  you  do  of  muri- 
ate of  tin ;  that  is,  supposhig  you  wish  to  use  4  lbs.  of  muri- 
ate of  tin  for  the  mordant,  then  use  2  lbs.  of  muriate  of  tin 
and  2  lbs.  of  these  spirits. 

Another  Scarlet  Spirit  Solution. 
Break  up  2  lbs.  sal-ammoniac,  mix  it  up  well  with  16  lbs. 
feathered  tin,  then  put  it  in  a  carboy,  add  80  lbs.  of  muriatic 
acid,  and  when  the  agitation  caused  by  the  mixture  has  ceased, 
place  a  distilling  tunnel  in  the  carboy,  stopping  the  neck  of 
the  carboy  around  the  tunnel  tight;  then  add,  through  the 
tunnel,  20  lbs.  sulphuric  acid. 

Nitrate  of  Tin. 

Take  2  lbs.  of  water,  add  to  it  1  lb.  nitric  acid,  use  of  tin 
3  ounces, to  the  pound  of  acid.  In  making  larger  quantities 
use  the  same  proportions. 

This  solution  is  not  used  now  as  much  as  formerly.  A 
concentrated  solution  of  this  salt  is  not  decomposed  by  being 
boiled,  but  when  it  is  diluted  with  water,  the  oxide  of  tin  is 
precipitated.  This  tin  solution  is  largely  used  in  France  for 
dyeing  iodine-green. 


COTTON  MORDANTS. 
Nitrate  of  Iron. 
Twenty  lbs.  nitric  acid,  36°,   2|  lbs.  clean   iron  turnings ; 
add  the  iron  gradually. 

Some  dyers  use  nitric  acid,  and  give  it  all  the  copperas 
(SO^Fe)  it  will  dissolve,  without  any  regard  to  the  amount. 
Nitrate  of  iron  should  be  kept  in  a  dark  place.  Nitric 
acid  containing  much  sulphuric  or  muriatic   acid,  docs  not 


376  THE    A3IERICAX   DYER. 

answer  for  this  solution,  as  the  salts  of  these  acids  are  crys- 
tallizable.  Therefore,  if  these  acids  are  present  in  nitric  acid 
they  will  cause  a  crystalline  mass  to  form  at  the  bottom  of 
the  vessel  in  which  the  iron  is  dissolved.  All  the  commer- 
cial nitric  acid  contains  a  small  amount  of  these  acids,  but  the 
amount  is  so  small  that  it  is  of  no  material  importance. 

Acetate  of  Alltmina. 
To  3  gallons  of  boiling  water,  add  4^  lbs.  alum,  5|  lbs. 
white  sugar  of  lead.  Boil  this  until  the  alum  and  lead  are 
dissolved  ;  let  it  stand  twelve  hours ;  use  the  clear  solution. 
This  solution  should  indicate  8°  Baume,  and  weigh  about 
fifteen  pounds. 

Neutral  Acetate  of  Alumina. 
Thirteen  lbs.   water,  ^  lb.  sal-soda.   4^  lbs.  alum,  3|  lbs. 
white  sugar  of  lead.     Boil  until  all  is  dissolved  ;  use  the  clear 
solution. 

Keutral  Acetate  of  Alumina. 
In  3^^  gallons  of  boiling  water,  dissolve  4^^  lbs.  alum,  ^  lb. 
soda  crystals,  3^  lbs.  white  sugar  of  lead.     This  should  make 
16|  lbs.  clear  mordant,  and  will  stand  at  10°  Baume. 

Acetate  of  Lead. 
Four  lbs.  brown  sugar  of  lead,  2  lbs.  litharge,  3  gallons  of 
water.     Boil  until  all  is  dissolved.     This  gives  18  lbs.,  at 
45°  Baume,  and  is  the  best  for  oranges. 

Another  Acetate  of  Lead. 
Six  quarts  of  water,  5|  lbs.  brown  sugar  of  lead,  2|  lbs. 
litharge,  are  boiled  together  until  all  is  completely  dissolved, 
and  the  solution  will  indicate  55°  Baume. 

Acetate  of  Copper. 
Dissolve  in  3  quarts  of  water  3\  lbs.  blue  vitriol.     Dis- 
solve in  1  quart  of  water  2\  lbs.  white  sugar  of  lead.     After 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  377 

these    are    completely   dissolved,   turn    them   or    mix    them 
together,  and  use  the  clear  solution  only. 

Another. 
One  gallon  of  water,  4  lbs.  blue  vitriol  (dissolve).     One 
gallon  of  water,  3  lbs.  white  sugar  of  lead  (dissolve).     Mix 
them  as  above,  and  use  clear  solution. 

Red  Spirits. 

These  spirits  are  for  coloring  reds  with  camwood,  Brazil- 
wood, and  other  red  woods,  and  are  sometimes  called  nitro- 
muriate  of  tin,  but  more  commonly  called  red  spirits.  Mix 
together  2  lbs.  nitric  acid,  and  6  lbs.  muriatic  acid.  Then 
add  feathered  tin  in  small  quantities  at  a  time  (see  Directions 
for  Tin  Solutions),  until  the  acid  will  dissolve  no  more.  Then 
pour  oil'  the  clear  solution,  and  keep  it  in  a  dark,  cool  place. 
This  spirit  is  for  a  deep  and  heavy  red ;  but  in  coloring  reds, 
if  a  red  is  not  wanted  to  be  so  deep  or  decided  a  red,  but  of 
a  bluer  or  crimson  hue,  it  requires  a  solution  made  thus  : 

Two  lbs.  nitric  acid,  10  lbs.  muriatic  acid,  giving  tin 
as  above  described. 

Bar  WOOD  Spirits, 
so  called  on  account  of  their  being  used  as  the  mordant  for 
barwood.     They  are  prepared  thus  : 

Two  lbs.  nitric  acid,  12  lbs.  muriatic  acid,  and  1^  ounces 
of  tin  to  the  pound  of  the  mixed  acids  ;  or  thus  : 

Two  lbs.  nitric  acid,  8  lbs.  muriatic  acid,  and  2  ounces  of 
tin  to  the  pound  of  mixed  acids.  There  are  other  slight 
variations  in  making  this  tin  solution.  They  consist  in  vary- 
ing the  muriatic  acid  from  4  to  7,  but  an  excess  of  tin  must 
be  avoided.  I  will  here  state,  that  the  working  strength  of 
the  spirit-tub  for  cotton-yarn  is  from  2°  to  3°  Twaddle. 
Coloring  barwood-reds  requires  a  great  deal  of  experience  and 
attention,  in  order  to  produce  good  colors. 

48 


378  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

Plum  Spirits. 
This  solution  derives  its  name  from  being  used  with  log- 
wood. Its  color  is  a  deep  plum.  By  some  d3'ers  it  is  termed 
a  French  tub.  It  is  prepared  as  follows  :  2  Ihs.  nitric  acid, 
14  lbs.  muriatic  acid.  Mix  these  acids.  Then  add  by  de- 
uces 2  ounces  of  tin  to  the  pound  of  mi!xed  acids ;  or  2  lbs. 
nitric  acid,  10  lbs.  muriatic  acid,  and  H  ounces  of  tin  to  the 
pound  of  acid.  For  each  2  lbs.  of  logwood  used,  add  1  lb. 
of  the  above  spirits. 

Spirits  for  Aniline  Colors  on  Cotton- Yarn. 
One  lb.  muriatic  acid,  \  lb.  nitric  acid,  1  pint  sulphuric 
acid.  Mix  these  acids.  Then  add  2  lbs.  of  feathered  tin,  a 
little  at  a  time.  When  the  tin  is  all  dissolved,  the  solution  is 
ready  for  use.  To  use  the  spirits,  steep  the  yarn  for  three  or 
four  hours  in  a  cold  sumac  solution.  Wring  out  the  yarn. 
Then  give  the  yarn  seven  turns  in  the  spirit-tub,  using  one 
pint  of  spirit  for  ten  pounds  of  yarn  (this  must  be  a  cold  bath) . 
Wash  oft'  the  yarn  from  the  spirits,  and  wring  it  out.  Then, 
in  a  clear  bath  of  water,  add  any  of  the  aniline  dyes,  and  color 
at  190°  F.     Wash  ofi'the  yarn  before  it  is  hung  up  to  dry. 


AMM0NIA  =  (NH3). 

Ammonia  occurs  in  the  atmosphere.  Ammoniacal  salts  are 
met  with  in  a  few  minerals,  and  in  volcanic  districts.  But 
the  greater  amount  of  ammonia  and  ammoniacal  salts  used 
industrially,  is  obtained  from  the  diy  distillation  of  coals, 
bones,  and  animal  substances  ;  also  by  the  distillation  of  stale 
urine  (lant),  and  from  water-gas,  or,  more  properly  speaking, 
water  through  which  coal-gas  has  passed.  Ammonia  is  com- 
posed of  one  part  nitrogen,  and  three  parts  hydrogen  (for- 
mula,  NH3),  condensed  to   two  volumes   of  ammonia  gas, 


THE    AMr':RICA:N^    DYER. 


379 


is  colorless,  and  has  a  peculiar  and  well-known  odor,  with  a 
sharp,  biting  taste. 

"Water  at  59°  F.,  will  absorb  727  times  its  bulk  of  this  gas. 
Water  at  40°  F.,  will  absorb  1,050  times  its  bulk  of  this  gas. 
The  solution  is  then  called  liquid,  or  aqua  ammonia,  and,  by 
some  chemists,  called  or  termed  spirits  of  sal-ammoniac. 
The  specific  gravity  is  0.824  (=31.3  per  cent,  of  NHg). 

The  following  table  shows  the  specific  gravity  of  liquid 
ammonia,  and  the  percentage  of  ammonia  that  it  contains  :  — 


Specific  Gravity. 

NHg  Ten  Cent. 

Specific  Gravity. 

NII„  Per  Cent. 

0.875 

32.50 

0.959 

10.0 

0.824 

81.30 

0.961 

9.5 

0.900 

2r).oo 

0.963 

9.0 

0.905 

25.39 

0.965 

8.5 

0.925 

19.54 

0.968 

8.0 

0.932 

17.52 

0.970 

7.5 

0.947 

13.46 

0.972 

7.0 

0.951 

12.00 

0.974 

6.5 

0.953 

11.50 

0.976 

6.0 

0.955 

11.00 

0.978 

6.5 

0.957 

10.50 

— 

The  specific  gravity  of  aqua  ammonia  ranges  from  0.875  to 
0.995,  and  the  per  cent,  of  ammonia  contained  ranges  from 
321  to  li  per  cent. 

There  are  various  methods  employed  to  prepare  aqua  am- 
monia, one  of  which  is  to  mix  equal  weights  of  lime  and  mu- 
riate of  ammonia  (sal-ammoniac,  NH^Cl),  well  powdered,  and 
then  expose  them  to  a  gentle  heat  in  a  retort ;  then  the  lime 
combines  with  the  muriatic  acid  (HCl)  contained  in  the  sal- 
ammoniac  and  liberates  the  ammoniacal  gas,  which  is  received 
into  a  jar  over  mercury  for  experiments  ;  but  for  mechanical 
and  manufiicturing  purposes,  it  is  conveyed  by  a  tube  into 
water.  In  this  state  it  rs  known  as  aqueous  ammonia,  or 
spirits  of  hartshorn. 

Another  method  of  preparing  or  manufacturing  aqua  ammo- 


380  THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 

nia,  is  by  decomposing  caustic  lime  (CaHoOo)  either  with 
chloride  of  ammonium  (sal-ammoniac,  NH^Cl)  or  sulphate  of 
ammonia  (NH^,  S2O4)  ;  ammoniacal  gas  is  set  free,  and  then  is 
absorbed  by  water,  care  being  taken  that  the  lime  is  in 
excess. 

We  might  give  a  detailed  account  of  the  preparation  of 
liquid  ammonia,  but  we  defer  doing  so,  as  it  would  take  up 
space,  and  would  not  be  of  any  material  advantage  or  benefit 
to  the  practical  dyer.  Therefore  we  will  only  speak  of  its  dif- 
ferent forms  and  combinations  in  which  it  will  be  of  use  to  us 
as  dyers. 

Sal-ammoniac  (NH^Cl).  This  substance  is  sometimes 
found  as  a  natural  formation  ;  it  is  met  with  on  Mounts  Vesu- 
vius and  Etna.  It  was  found  at  one  time  in  such  large  quan- 
tities on  Mount  Etna,  that  it  became  temporarily  an  article  of 
commerce  at  Catania  and  Messina.  This  substance  is  manu- 
factured from  gas-water,  or  by  the  distillation  of  animal 
matters,  and  then  saturating  them  with  muriatic  acid  (HCl) 
which  will  crystallize  in  a  very  impure  state.  These  are  then 
collected,  and  placed  in  iron  pots ;  these  pots  are  set  into 
furnaces  that  are  lined  with  fire-brick,  and  have  large  covers, 
made  of  lead,  fitted  to  them.  Fire  is  then  applied,  the  sal- 
ammoniac  sublimes  and  will  collect  as  a  crust  upon  these 
leaden  covers,  from  which  it  is  removed  from  time  to  time  as 
it  collects. 

From  the  thirteenth  to  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, this  salt  was  imported  into  Egypt,  where  it  was  prepared 
by  the  combustion  of  camel's-dung.  The  camel  feeds  almost 
exclusively  upon  plants  containing  salts,  and  it  is  said  that 
sal-ammoniac  is  often  found  ready  formed  in  their  stomachs. 
The  sal-ammoniac  after  havins:  sublimed  with  the  soot 
caused  by  the  burning  of  the  dung,  is  collected  and  refined 
by  a  second  sublimation. 

In  localities  where  this  dung  is  used  as  fuel,  it  has  been 
tried  to  obtain  sal-ammoniac  by  burning  it  with  common  salt. 
The  first  sal-ammoniac  manufactory  in  Germany  was  estab- 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  381 

lishcd  by  Gravenhorst  Brothers  at  Brunswick,  in  1750.  This 
salt,  from  whatever  source  is  is  obtained,  has  to  be  purified 
by  sublimation  in  cast-iron  cauldrons  lined  with  fire-clay. 
The  crude  sal-ammoniac  is  put  into  these  cauldrons  and  then 
tightly  rammed  ;  heat  is  applied,  gently  at  first,  so  as  to  drive 
ofl'  the  moisture ;  after  this  is  accomplished  the  heat  is  in- 
creased, but  the  temperature  has  to  be  regulated,  during  this 
heating  process,  to  a  nicety,  for  if  too  low  a  heat  is  main- 
tained, it  will  yield  a  very  loose  salt,  and  if  the  heat  is  too 
high,  the  organic  matter  contained  in  the  sal-ammoniac  is  liable 
to  give  off  matter  that  would  spoil  the  appearance  of  the  sub- 
limated salt,  and  would  interfere  with  its  good  quality. 
Experience  has  proved  that  it  is  very  necessary  to  have  very 
large  sublimation  vessels.  When  the  sal-ammoniac  cake  has 
become  of  sufficient  thickness  (four  or  five  inches),  the  heat 
is  withdrawn  and  the  cake  removed  ;  it  is^  then  dried  in  an 
oven  and  afterwards  packed  for  the  market. 

At  the  present  day  sal-ammoniac  is  often  sublimed  in 
earthenware  vessels,  or  in  large  glass  flasks,  the  crude  salt 
being  first  mixed  with  twenty-five  to  thirty  per  cent,  of  its 
weight  of  powdered  animal  charcoal,  then  dried  over  a  good 
fire. 

The  sal-ammoniac  of  commerce,  we  find  either  in  a  crystal- 
line state,  or  as  a  compact,  fibrous,  sublimed  material,  ex- 
hibiting the  appearance  of  having  been  formed  in  layers. 
Crystalline  sal-ammoniac  is  made  by  adding  to  the  re-crystal- 
14zed  sal-ammoniac  a  strong  boiling-hot  solution  of  the  same 
salt,  so  as  to  produce  a  thickish  magma,  which  is  next  placed 
in  moulds  similar  in  shape  to  those  used  for  making  loaf-sugar, 
then,  after  draining,  the  loaf  of  sal-ammoniac  is  taken  out  of 
the  moulds,  dried,  packed  in  paper,  and  is  now  ready  for 
sale,  This  is  the  kind  of  sal-ammoniac  that  is  used  in  chem- 
ical laboratories  by  pharmaceutists  and  by  veterinary  sur- 
geons ;  it  is  used  in  calico-printing  and  for  the  preparation  of 
platinum,  snufF,  and  for  making  mastic  or  iron  cement.  The 
cement  is    made   as    follows :    one    part   sal-ammoniac,   two 


382  THE    AM  ERIC  AX   DYER. 

parts  of  sulphur  and  fifty  parts  of  irou-filiiigs  ;  this  is  used  for 
cementiug  iron  pipes  for  water,  steam  or  gas. 

Sul-amuioniac(NH4Cl)  consists,  in  100  parts  : — Of  ammonia, 
31.83;  muriatic  acid,  68.22;  or,  ammonium  (NH^),  33.75; 
chlorine  (CI),  66.25  =  100.  Sal-ammoniac  is  used  in  the 
woolen  dye-house  for  scouring  wool,  and  with  logwood  in 
coloring  some  particular  shade  of  purples,  violets,  and 
dahlias. 

Sulphate  of  ammonia  (NH4SO4).  This  substance  is  met 
w^th  in  small  quantities  in  the  mineral  known  as  mascagnin, 
but  in  larger  quantities  in  the  boracic  acid  (B.^O^)  of  Tuscany. 
This  salt  is  prepared  from  the  ammoniacal  water  of  gas-works, 
from  urine  (lant),  and  by  the  dry  distillation  of  bones,  by 
the  aid  of  sulphuric  acid,  or  else  by  double  decomposition  by 
means  of  gypsum  (CaSOj,  or  by  sulphate  of  iron  (S04Fe). 
This  solulii>n  is  evaporated  to  crystallization  ;  if  it  is  obtained 
from  gas- water  that  contains  some  of  the  tarry  matters,  the 
crystals  are  usually  of  a  deep  brown  color,  and  consequently 
have  to  be  purified  by  being  dissolved  in  hot  water,  then  fil- 
tered through  animal  charcoal,  and  then  re-crystallized  by 
rapidly  evaporating  the  solution  and  removing  the  crystals  as 
fast  as  they  form,  by  the  use  of  perforated  ladles.  The  crys- 
tals are  then  drained  by  being  placed  in  baskets  constructed 
for  the  purpose;  after  draining  a  few  hours,  they  are  then 
quickly  dried  on  hot  fire-clay  slaljs,  by  which  operation  any 
particles  of  tar  left  in  the  crystals  are  decomposed. 

Sulphite  of  ammonia,  obtained  l)y  saturating  carbonate  of 
ammonia  solution  with  sulphurous  acid  gas,  is,  when  exposed 
to  the  atmosphere,  gradually  converted  into  sulphate  of  am- 
monia. The  sulphate  of  ammonia,  industrially  speaking,  is 
far  the  most  important  of  all  the  ammonia  salts,  because  of  its 
being  very  largely  used  in  preparing  artificial-manure  mix- 
tures, and  l)y  itself,  for  the  same  purpose;  it  is  extensively 
employed  in  alum-making,  and  it  is  the  starting-point  of  the 
preparation  of  chloride  of  ammonia  (NH4CI),  carbonate  of  am- 
monia, aqua  ammonia,  and  other  similar  products.     Sulphate 


THE    AMERICAN    DYEK.  383 

of  ammonia  is  used  as  a  mordant  along  with  alum  and  salt  for 
deep  logwood  blues.  The  proportions  are  as  follows  :  two 
of  sulphate  ;  nine  of  salt ;  eight  of  alum. 


ARGOL,  OR  CRUDE  TARTAR. 

"Crude  or  red  tartar  is  deposited  upon  the  sides  of  casks 
containing  wines,  carrying  into  its  crystallization  some  of  the 
coloring  matter  of  the  peculiar  kind  of  wine  from  which  it 
was  deposited  ;  this  is  the  cause  of  the  difterence  in  the  color 
of  the  argol.  This  crude  tartar  is  employed  by  dyers  in  all 
common  and  dark  colors,  where  a  supertartrate  of  potash  is 
required  as  an  auxiliary  to  the  mordant,  it  being  cheaper  than 
the  white,  or  cream  of  tartar  so  called,  the  cream  of  tartar 
being  obtained  from  argol,  hy  precipitating  or  retaining  its 
coloring  matter  with  charcoal,  bone-black,  clay,  &c." 

In  dyeing  any  and  all  colors  where  tartar  is  required  as  a 
part  of  the  mordant,  I  prefer  the  red  to  the  white  or  cream  of 
tartar,  as  it  contains  more  tartaric  acid  than  the  cream  of 
tartar,  unless  the  red  tartar  is  too  much  adulterated  with  red 
sandstone,  which  is  quite  often  the  case.  This  adulteration, 
however,  can  be  very  easily  detected  by  dissolving  some  of 
the  suspected  tartar  in  boiling  water;  the  tartar  will  all 
dissolve,  and  the  sandstone  will  deposit  at  the  bottom  of  the 
utensil  in  which  you  have  dissolved  the  tartar. 

SUPER-TxVRTRATE      OR      BiTARTRATE     OF     POTARSA      (Potash), 
COMMONLY  CALLED  CrEAM  OF  TaRTAR,    {KO,2CiU^Or,) . 

This  salt  is  of  general  application  in  woolen  dyeing,  as  an 
auxiliary  to  the  mordants,  but  is  more  especially  used  along 
with  the  tin  solutions  and  with  alum. 

Tartar  of  itself  is  a  feeble  mordant,  but  when  used  with 
chloride  of  tin  or  alum,  it  is  then  a  strong  mordant,  which  is 
due  to  the  decomposition  ;  the  sulphuric  acid  of  the  alum,  and 


384  THE   AMERICANS"   DYER. 

the  chlorine  with  the  tin,  take  from  the  tartar  the  potash  it 
contains,  and  the  ahimina  is  converted  into  a  tartrate  ;  the 
tin  is  also  converted  into  a  tartrate  of  tin.  It  is  very 
•probable  that  the  coloring  matter  of  the  tartar  removes  the 
alumina  or  the  oxide  of  tin  more  readily  from  tartaric  than 
from  sulphuric  acid,  as  it  converts  the  sulphuric  acid  of  the 
alum  into  tartaric  acid ;  otherwise  the  alum  is  converted  into 
a  tartrate  of  alumina.  In  this  state  there  will  be  no  free 
sulphuric  acid,  which  would  certainly  be  of  injury  to  the  wool 
as  well  as  to  the  coloring  matter,  while  free  tartaric  acid  will 
have  no  bad  effect  upon  either,  especially  the  wool,  as  the 
wool  dissolves,  and  an  equivalent'  of  the  mordant  takes  its 
place,  as  spoken  of  in  regard  to  alum. 

"Cream  of  tartar,  or  supertartrate  of  potash  is  but  slightly 
soluble  in  water,  as  it  takes  sixty  times  its  weight  of  cold 
water,  and  fifteen  times  its  weiofht  of  boilingf  water  to  dissolve 
it ;  but  one-fifth  of  its  weight  of  borate  of  soda  (borax) 
causes  it  to  be  very  soluble." 

It  is  composed,  in  100  parts : 

Tartaric  acid,  .  .  .         70.45 

Potash, 24.08 

Water,    ' 4.75=99.28 

We  have  said  that  the  crude  tartar  was  a  deposit  from  wine 
during  fermentation.  The  tartar  that  is  deposited  from  red 
wines  hasti  red  color,  and  is  called  red  tartar,  while  that  de- 
rived from  white  wine  is  a  dirty-white  color,  and  called  ichite 
argol.  Both  kinds  consist  of  potash  united  with  an  excess 
of  tartaric  acid  (CgH^Oxo),  forming  bitartrate  of  potassa 
(potash,  KO,2S03-i-2HO)  rendered  impure  by  tartrate  of 
lime  (CaOjCiH.^Os),  with  more  or  less  coloring  matters,  and 
other  matters  which  are  deposited  during  the  clarifaction  of 
the  wine.  The  deposition  of  the  tartar  is  thus  explained  : 
"The  bitartrate  exists  naturall}'  in  the  juice  of  the  grape, 
held   in   solution   by  saccharine  matter.     When  the  juice  is 


THE    AMEKICAX   DYER.  385 

submitted  to  fermentation  in  the  process  of  converting  it  into 
wine,  the  sugar  disappears,  and  is  rephiced  by  alcohol,  which, 
not  being  competent  to  dissolve  the  tartaric  acid,  allows  it  to 
precipitate  as  a  crystalline  crust."  It  is  from  this  substance 
that  the  bitartrate  of  potassa  (cream  of  tartar)  is  obtained, 
by  a  process  of  puritication. 

The  process  of  purifying  the  crude  tartar  Is  founded  upon 
the  greater  solubility  of  bitartrate  of  potassa  in  hot  water 
than  in  cold.  The  crude  tartar  is  first  ground  fine,  and  then 
boiled  with  water  in  copper  boilers.  The  solution  is  trans- 
ferred to  earthen  pans.  After  cooling,  there  is  a  crystalline 
layer  deposited,  which  is  free  from  the  natural  color  of  the 
crude  tartar.  This  is  re-dissolved  in  boiling  water,  and  the 
solution  is  then  mixed  with  four  or  five  per  cent,  of  pipe-clay  ; 
it  is  then  evaporated  to  a  pellicle.  The  pipe-clay  precipitates 
along  with  the  coloring  matter,  and  the  clear  solution,  as  it 
cools,  deposits  white  crystals  in  crusts,  which,  upon  being 
exposed  to  the  atmosphere  on  linen  cloth  for  several  days, 
acquire  an  increased  whiteness.  This  is  the  crystal  of  tartar 
of  pharmacy,  met  with  in  the  apothecary's  shop  as  a  powder, 
for  greater  convenience,  and  to  which  the  name  of  cream  of 
tartar  properly  belongs. 

The  cream  of  tartar  of  commerce  is  not  a  pure  bitartrate  of 
potash,  as  it  very  often  contains  from  ten  to  thirteen  per  cent, 
of  tartrate  of  lime  (CaO,C4H20  ),  according  to  the  analysis  of 
Mr.  J.  M.  Maisch.  It  is  adulterated  with  such  substances  as 
sand,  clay,  gypsum,  flour,  chalk,  alum,  and  sulphate  of 
potash  (KOSO3).  Sand,  clay,  and  gypsum  in  tartar  is  de- 
tected by  their  not  dissolving  in  hot  water;  iodine  (I)  will 
turn  a  solution  of  tartar  a  blue  color  if  it  contains  flour ;  if 
chalk  is  present  the  solution  will  foam,  by  adding  diluted 
acids  to  it ;  alum  is  detected  by  its  astringent  taste,  and  if  it 
contains  any  sulphate  of  potash,  it  will  precipitate  by  adding 
chloride  of  barium  (BaCl)  to  a  solution  of  the  suspected  tar- 
tar, and  the  precipitate  will  not  be  entirely  soluble  in  nitric 
acid  (NO5). 

49 


386  THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 

The  action  of  the  last-named  test  is  explained  thus  :  the 
chloride  of  barium  is  not  soluble  in  nitric  acid,  but  the  tar- 
trate is.  The  best  security  against  these  frauds  is  to  purchase 
the  crystals,  and  grind  them  yourself.  Cream  of  tartar  is  a 
permanent  salt,  and  has  a  sour  but  not  a  disagreeable  taste. 
It  is  soluble  in  one  hundred  and  eighty-four  parts  of  cold  and 
eighteen  parts  of  boiling  water;  it  is  insolul)le  in  alcohol. 
It  consists  of  two  equivalents  of  tartaric  acid,  one  equivalent 
of  potassa,  and  one  equivalent  of  water,  thus  : 

2  equivalents  of  tartaric  acid,      .       CsH.20io=132 
1  '*  potassa,  .  .  KO=  47.2 

1  «'  water,      .         .  H0=     9 

18b. 2 
According  to  the  above,  its  prime  equivalent  is  188.2. 


TARTARINE. 
A  Substitute  for  Tartar. 

There  are  numerous  substitutes  now  in  the  market  to  take 
the  place  of  tartar,  such  as  "Tartarette,"  "Colorine,"  ""Silver 
Tartar,"  " Tartar  Mordant"  (oxalic  acid  in  combination  with 
terra  alba),  and  "Tartariue."  We  have  tried  them  all,  and 
after  a  fair  and  impartial  trial,  have  come  to  a  positive  conclu- 
sion that  there  cannot  be  a  substitute  manufactured  to  come 
so  near  the  real  article  itself  as  the  tartariue.  We  have  used 
it  for  over  two  j'ears,  with  the  very  best  results,  on  all  colors 
where  a  tartar  is  required.  As  a  substitute  for  tartaric  acid, 
it  is  invaluable,  having  the  same  effects  in  all  respects  as  the 
tartaric  acid  of  commerce,  and  we  have  used  it  often  in  place 
of  tartaric  acid. 

Tartariue  contains  one-third  more  tartaric  acid  in  its  com- 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  ^87 

position  than  either  cream  of  tartar  or  half- refined  tartar ; 
therefore  we  prefer  it  to  either  of  the  two  last-named  sub- 
stances, and  especially  for  coloring  scarlets,  as  by  its  use  there 
is  a  saving  of  cochineal ;  we  have  to  use  less  of  it  to  produce 
the  same  shade  on  the  same  amount  of  goods,  than  we  would 
have  to  use  provided  cream  of  tartar  or  half-refined  tartar 
was  employed  ;  it  also  requires  less  tartarine.  In  using  tar- 
tarine,  its  proportions  are  one-third  stronger  than  cream  of 
tartar,  or  half-refined  tartar  ;  that  is,  it  requires  one-third  less 
than  the  other  named  tartars.  Tartarine  springs  the  color 
from  cochineal,  logwood,  and  other  red  woods,  to  such  an  ex- 
tent, that  it  requires  less  of  them  to  produce  the  desired  amouiit 
of  color  than  it  does  when  using  argols  in  any  of  its  prescribed 
forms,  thereby  making  a  saving  of  dyestufFs,  and  a  clearer 
color.  We  knew  of  a  number  of  dyers  that,  when  they  first 
used  it,  got  "stuck"  (as  the  saying  is  in  the  dye-house), 
for  the  very  reason  that  they  used  as  much  of  it  as  they  used 
of  cream  of  tartar,  but  after  using  it  awhile,  they  have 
informed  me  that  there  was  no  substitute,  not  even  tartar  itself, 
that  produced  such  good  results  as  tartarine,  and  that  they 
would  not  be  without  it  as  long  as  it  can  be  obtained. 

The  above  will  be  the  verdict  of  every  dyer  who  will  give 
it  an  impartial  trial.  In  the  recipes  on  cloth  and  wool,  con- 
tained in  this  work,  the  reader  will  find  that  wherever  a 
tartar  is  required  in  the  composition  of  the  color,  tartarine  is 
used  invariably,  and  by  looking  at  the  samples  of  cloth  and 
wool,  you  will  see  that  the  colors  are  clear  and  intense  —  not 
thin  and  dead  looking. 

I  would  advise  all  dj^ors  who  have  not  used  the  tartarine  to 
give  it  a  fair  trial,  and  my  word  for  it,  they  will  always  there- 
after use  it. 

Send  for  a  circular  of  recommendations  to  Rollins  &  Ash- 
ley, No.  79  Bedford  Street,  Boston,  Mass.  They  are  the 
sole  agents  for  it. 


388  THE    AMERICAX   DYEK. 


ALUM. 

This  is  an  earthy  salt,  and  is  extensively  used  in  dyeing  and 
calico-printing,  in  combination  with  other  substances.  In  cal- 
ico-printing and  cotton-yarn  dyeing,  it  is  generally  used  in 
the  form  of  an  acetate  of  alumina,  or  the  so-called  red  liquor. 
In  woolen  dyeing,  it  is  used  as  a  base  or  mordant  for  nearly 
all  the  different  colors,  along  with  tartar. 

In  the  process  of  combining  alum  with  wool,  it  has  been 
shown  by  "Messrs.  Berthollett,Thenerd,  and  Roard,that  alum 
unites  entirely  with  wool,  without  any  decomposition  of  the 
salt,  but  that  the  tartar  is  deprived  of  its  excess  of  acid,  which 
unites  with  the  alum  and  wool,  leaving  the  neutral  tartrate  of 
potash  in  solution  in  the  preparation  liquor ;  so  that  a  prepara- 
tion of  alum  and  tartar  impregnates  the  wool  with  a  salt 
composed  of  sulphuric  and  tartaric  acids,  potash  and  alum- 
ina." 

The  latest  investigations  on  this  subject  were  made  by 
Havrez,  who  ascertained  by  his  researches,  that  there  should 
never  be  a  larger  amount  of  alum  used  than  thirty  per  cent, 
of  the  weight  of  wool.  Although  this  statement  is  given  by 
so  eminent  a  chemist,  I  must  differ  from  it,  and  so  will  every 
practical  dyer ;  for  where  is  there  a  dyer  that  would  ever 
attempt  or  think  of  employing  thirty  pounds  of  alum  to  one 
hundred  pounds  of  clean  wool  to  produce  a  green  with  fustic 
and  sulphate  of  indigo,  or  a  red  with  madder  or  camwood,  or 
any  of  the  red  woods? 

But  independent  of  the  effects  of  alum  and  tartar  upon  wool, 
as  spoken  of  by  Berthollett,  which  might  be  produced  by  any 
other  acid,  tartar  appears  to  be  capable  of  effecting  a  further 
object,  by  inducing  a  double  decomposition,  which  transforms 
the  alum  into  a  tartrate  of  alumina.  These  results  are  brought 
about  only  at  the  boiling  point ;  for  if  we  should  dip  wool  in 
a  cold  solution  of  alum  and  tartar,  then  dip  it  into  boiling 
water,  it  would  part  with  all  the  alum  which  it  received  in  the 
cold  bath  :  but  when  the  wool  is  boiled  in  the  alum  and  tartar 


THE    AMEKICAN    DYER.  389 

solution,  it  yields  to  this  liquor  a  portion  of  its  organic  mat- 
ter, which  becomes  tlissolvecl  ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  the  wool 
will  absorb  an  equal  amount  of  the  alum.  The  presence  of 
alum  upon  the  wool,  when  we  take  it  out  of  the  preparation- 
liquor,  is  very  evident,  from  the  peculiar  stain  given  to  the 
wool  ;  but  the  presence  of  sulphuric  and  tartaric  acids,  and 
potash,  is  only  presumable. 

The  kinds  of  alum  mostly  met  with  How  in  the  market,  are 
the  potash,  ammonia,  and  natrona  porous  alum.  Potash  alum 
contains  in  100  parts  of — 

Potash,     .     ' 9.90 

Alumina,  .....  10.83 

Sulphuric  acid,  ....  33.76 

Water, 45.51=100 

This  alum  is  denominated  a  double  salt,  it  being  composed 
of  two  sulphates — the  sulphate  of  alumina  and  sulphate  of 
potash. 

Potash  alum  crystallizes  very  easily ;  it  will  fuse  at  92°  in 
its  own  water  of  crystallization,  leaving  a  colorless  fluid,  which 
remains  a  fluid  for  some  time  after  cooling,  before  it  solidifies 
into  a  crystalline  mass.  At  a  temperature  a  trifle  below  red 
heat,  it  will  lose  all  its  water,  and  become  converted  into  burnt 
alum,  a  white  porous  and  friable  substance. 

100  parts  of  water  at  40°  will  dissolve  32  parts  potash  alum. 
a  '«       100°  "  360      "  " 

The  solution  of  this  alum  in  water  has  an  astringent,  sweet 
taste ;  a  strong  concentrated  solution  of  it  will  destroy  the 
blue  color  of  many — if  not  of  all — artificial  ultramarines. 

Ammonia  alum  contains  in  100  parts — 

"Ammonia, 4.90         ^ 

Sulphuric  acid,         ....  35.09 

Alumina, 11.90 

Water, 48.11=^100." 


390  THE   AMEEICAX   DYER. 

Ammoniii  alum  is  at  the  present  time  fur  more  extensively 
manufactured  than  the  potash  alum.  When  this  alum  is  strong- 
ly heated,  the  water,  sulphuric  acid,  and  sulphate  of  ammonia, 
are  expelled,  and  alumina  alone  remains. 

100  parts  of  water  at  40°  will  dissolve  27.30  parts  of  this  alum. 
♦'  "         100°  "  42.10         "  '* 

Natrona  Porous  Ai^um. 

This  alum  contains  more  alumina  than  any  other  alum  in 
the  market,  and,  for  that  reason,  it  is  so  well  adapted  for  a 
mordant  on  prints  or  ph\in-colored  cotton  fabrics. 

All  practical  dyers  are  well  aware  that  alum,  of  itself,  is  a 
feeble  mordant  for  cotton,  on  account  of  the  iron  in  combina- 
tion with  the  acid  and  alumina ;  but  the  natrona  being  free 
from  iron  and  ammonia,  makes  it  a  powerful  mordant,  when 
compared  with  any  other  of  the  alums. 

This  alum  contains,  in  100  parts,  — 

"Alumina,  18.90 

Sulphuric  acid,  .         .         .  36.50 

Potash, 2.00 

Water, 42.60=100" 

The  active  principle  of  this  alum  is  evidently  the  sulphate 
of  alumina,  and  ntjt  the  sulphates  of  potassa  and  amiionia,  as 
is  the  case  with  all  other  alums.  The  preparation  of  alum  is 
simply  the  obtaining  of  a  definite  compound,  and,  while  it 
readily  crystallizes,  it  can  be  obtained  in  a  pure  state,  and 
especially  free  from  iron,  —  a  very  injurious  substance  in 
alum,  when  used  for  calico-printing.  The  natrona  alum,  at 
the  present  time,  is  the  only  alum  used  for  paper-making,  in 
most,  if  not  all  the  paper-mills  in  this  country,  on  account  of 
its  being  perfectly  free  from  iron.  The  color  of  this  alum  is 
white.  It  is  easily  cut  with  a  knife.  It  readily  dissojves  in 
water,  and  always  contains  free  acid  ;  also,  to  some  extent, 


THE    AMERICAN   DYEK.  301 

potash.     But,  in  a  perfectly  pure  state,  it  contains  no  potash, 
and  consists,  in  100  parts, — 

"Alumina, 18.78 

Sul[)huric  acid,         ....       38.27 
Water, 42. 95  z=  100" 

This  is  its  composition  in  its  purity.  The  formula  of  this 
alum,  when  pure,  is  Al2(S04)  +  18H20. 

The  specjtic  gravity  of  a  concentrated  solution  of  this  alum 
is  1.530;  of  the  alum  itself,  1.7G0';  while  that  of  the  English 
is  1.485,  and  of  the  alum  itself,  1.695,  showing  quite  a  differ- 
ence in  favor  of  the  natrona  porous  alum.  The  natrona  alum 
is  what  I  term  a  concentrated  alum,  and  it  requires  one- 
third  less  of  it  than  of  any  other  to  ^jroduce  the  same 
results ;  but,  in  using,  I  have  found  dyers  that  will  use  as 
much  of  it  as  they  would  of  the  lump  alum  ;  and  then  they  say, 
"I  do  not  like  it,  because  it  makes  my  reds  too  much  upon 
the  scarlet  shade,"  &c.  Now,  if  these  dyers  would  use  less 
of  it  than  they  would  of  other  alums,  they  would  not  have  any 
trouble  in  getting  a  good  clear,  bright,  and  full  red.  All  dyers 
know,  or,  at  least,  should  know,  that  an  excess  of  alum  causes 
the  wool  to  feel  harsh,  and  that  it  kills  the  soap  when  using 
it  in  the  fuljing  and  scouring  of  the  cloth ;  therefore,  when 
the  fuller  finds  that  he  cannot  get  the  goods  clean  by  using  a 
soap  of  two  degrees  of  alkaline  strength,  he  will  add  more 
and  more  alkali  to  the  soap  until  it  is  strong  enough  to  cleanse 
the  cloth  ;  then  the  dyer  finds  fault  because  they  full  or  scour 
out  his  colors,  and  blames  the  fuller  for  it,  when,  if  he  would 
look  at  it  in  the  right  light,  he  would  find  that  there  was  no 
one  to  blame  but  himself.  I  knew  a  dyer  who  used  thirty- 
five  pounds  of  alum  on  two  hundred  pounds  of  clean  wool  in 
saddening  down,  besides  twenty-five  pounds  that  he  used  in 
the  preparation  ;  and  when  asked  why  he  used  so  much  alum, 
"Oh,"  said  he,  "the  alum  will  kill  the  soap,  so  that  the  fuller 
cannot  strip  the  color  down." 


392  THE    AMEEICAX   DYEK. 

There  is  no  alum  so  good  for  coloring  yellows,  oranges, 
crimsons,  or  reds  on  wool,  as  the  natrona  alum.  It  gives  a 
brighter  and  more  intense  hue  than  any  other  alum  in  the 
market,  besides  the  advantage  of  not  having  to  use  so  much 
of  it ;  therefore,  it  takes  less  strength  of  soap  to  cleanse  the 
goods,  and  the  goods  feel  softer,  and  the  color  is  not  injured 
by  the  use  of  strong  soap. 

For  coloring-purposes,  the  most  detrimental  substance  in 
alum  is  iron,  and,  to  detect  it,  "dissolve  some  of  the  alum  in 
distilled  water ;  then  add  to  it  a  few  drops  of  dissolved  red 
prussiate  of  potash  ;  or  boil  some  alum  with  a  few  drops  of 
nitric  acid  ;  then  add  a  few  drops  of  dissolved  yellow  prussiate. 
In  either  case,  if  there  is  iron  in  the  alum,  the  solution  will 
turn  to  a  blue  color.  Or  dissolve  some  alum,  as  above,  in 
distilled  water  ;  theai  add  a  few  drops  of  gallic  acid.  This  will 
turn  the  solution  black,  if  there  is  iron  in  the  alum.  Or  you 
can  make  a  solution  of  a  piece  of  alum  ;  then  add  caustic 
potash  to  it  until  the  sohition  is  very  alkaline  ;  then  boil  this 
solution,  and,  if  the  alum  contains  iron,  it  will  form  at  the 
bottom  in  a  brownish,  glutinous  mass."  Pure  alum  is  all 
soluble  in  water. 

We  might  give  a  detailed  account  of  the  different  methods 
for  the  preparation  of  alum,  but  thinking  that  it  would  not  be 
of  any  particular  benefit  to  dyers,  it  will  be  omitted. 

There  is  a  chrome  alum  that  is  now  obtained  in  large  quan- 
tities, as  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  aniline-violet, 
aniline-green,  and  anthracene-red.  It  is  a  crystallized  sub- 
stance, of  a  deep  violet  color,  and  is  now  being,  to  some 
extent,  used  as  a  mordant.  It  is  also  used  for  waterproofing, 
repellants,  or  cloaking. 

Aluminate  of  Soda. 
This  (what  we  may  call  a  mordant)  is  now  prepared  on  a 
large  scale,  as  it  has  been  found  to  be  a  useful  form  of  soluble 
alumina,    more    particularly   for    cotton-dyeing   and    calico- 
printing. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  '  393 

The  preparation  of  this  substance  is  based  upon  the  hydrate 
of  ahunina  being  so  soluble  in  caustic  potash,  and  also  by  the 
solution  being  so  easily  decomposed  by  acetic  and  carbonic 
acids,  sal-ammoniac,  and  acetate  of  soda.  It  is  also  prepared 
from  cryolite,  which  is  deprived  of  its  flourine  by  the  addition 
of  lime,  and  from  an  aluminate  of  iron.  The  iron  is  calcined 
with  carbonate  of  soda ;  it  is  then  washed,  and  evaporated  to 
dryness. 

By  a  certain  amount  of  hydrochlorine  acid  (muriatic  acid), 
the  soda  will  be  separated  from  the  iron,  and  the  hydratod 
alumina  that  is  left  is  soluble  in  acetic  acid,  and  contains,  in 
one  hundred  parts, — 

Soda, 44 

Alumina,      .  .         .         .         .         .         48 

Chloride  of  sodium  and  glauber  salts,    .  8  =  100 

Aluminate  of  soda  was  first  introduced  to  the  notice  of 
dyers  in  or  about  the  year  1819,  by  Marquer  and  Haussmann, 
but  their  preparation  being  so  very  expensive  it  did  not  come 
into  general  use  until  within  the  last  fifteen  years,  and  now 
the  Washington  Chemicals  Works  in  England  prepare  it  at 
such  a  low  price  that  cotton  printers  and  dyers  are  finding  it 
profitable  to  use  it  as  a  mordant.  We  find  it  in  the  market 
as  a  powder  of  a  green-yellow  hue,  and  dry  to  the  touch.  It 
is  soluble  either  in  hot  or  cold  water.  When  exposed  to  the 
atmosphere,  it  absorbs  moisture  and  carbonic  acid,  this  salt 
being  thus  changed  by  the  atmosphere ;  if  it  is  then  dis- 
solved in  water  the  solution  becomes  turbid,  which  is  owing 
to  the  alumina  being  in  suspension.  A  solution  of  aluminate 
of  soda  cannot  be  made  stronger  than  12°  or  15°  Baume,  and 
from  1.7  to  1.09  specific  gravity. 

This  salt  is  used  for  numerous  purposes  besides  dyeing  and 
calico-printing.  Large  quantities  of  aluminate  of  soda  are 
manufiictured  at  Natrona,  Penn.,  and  are  used  for  making 
soap,  and  called  N'atrona  refined  saponifier. 

50 


394  THE    AMEKICAX   DYEE. 

Among  the  different  salts  of  alumina  that  are  industrially 
employed  are  h3'posulphite  ol"  alumina,  which  was  recom- 
mended by  E.  Kopp  as  a  mordant  for  cotton  ;  sulphite  of 
alumina,  for  purifying  beet-root  juice;  oxalate  of  alumina, 
suggested  by  Dent  for  the  preservation  of  marble,  stone,  &c.  ; 
the  hypochlorite  of  alumina,  known  as  Wilson's  bleaching 
liquor. 

Alum,  besides  being  used  for  dj'cing  purposes,  is  employed 
for  the  preparation  of  the  lake-colors,  there  being  active 
coloring  principles  in  combination  with  alumina.  Alum  is 
used  for  hardening  gypsum,  in  sizing  for  hand-made  paper ; 
the  alum  in  this  case  forms  with  the  glue  or  size  an  insoluble 
compound.  Alum  is  used  in  clarifying  turbid  fluids,  especially 
water ;  in  this  instance  the  alumina  that  is  suspended  in  the 
water  is  taken  up  by  the  alum,  the  alum  forming  an  insoluble 
(basic)  alum,  which  carries  down  or  precipitates  the  organic 
matters  and  other  impurities  which  are  in  solution  in  the 
water. 

A  boiling  solution  of  common  salt,  alum,  and  nitrate  of 
potash  is  employed  by  jewellers  for  coloring  gold,  or,  in  other 
words,  to  produce  a  film  of  pure  gold  on  the  alloy  ;  the  copper 
alloy  is  dissolved  by  the  boiling  s'olution. 

Alum  is  but  a  weak  mordant  for  cotton,  yarn,  or  cloth 
(unless  it  is  converted  into  an  acetate  of  alumina),  owing  to 
the  sulphuric  acid  contained  in  the  alum  having  so  strong  an 
attraction  for  the  alumina,  and  in  alum  the  sulphuric  acid  has 
three  proportions  to  everj'^  two  of  alumina.  But  if  a  portion 
of  the  acid  is  neutralized  there  will  remain  only  enough  acid 
to  hold  the  alumina  in  solution,  which  is  not  over  one-third  of 
the  acid  contained  in  the  alum ;  by  so  doing  the  properties  of 
the  alum  become  greatly  improved  as  a  mordant.  The 
amount  of  acid  which  will  admit  of  being  reduced  can  be 
found  by  taking  a  given  quantity  of  carbonate  of  soda  (suffi- 
cient to  neutralize  the  whole  of  the  acid  in  the  amount  of 
alum  taken).  Now  divide  this  soda  solution  into  three  pro- 
portions and  add  two  of  these  portions  gradually  to  the  alum 


THE    AMEKICAN    DYER.  305 

solution  (stin-lng  it  all  the  time),  and  although  the  alumina 
will  be  precii)itatecl,  if  the  stirring  or  agitation  is  con- 
tinued for  a  short  time  the  precipitate  will  again  dissolve. 
This  forms  an  alum  that  contains  not  over  one-third  the  acid 
that  there  is  in  the  common  alum,  and  in  this  state  it  is  a 
more  powerful  mordant  for  cotton  than  it  is  in  the  origiind 
state,  for  the  reason  that  the  base  is  held  more  feebly  by  the 
sulphuric  acid  and  is  then  more  readily  detached  by  the  affin- 
ity of  the  yarn  or  fabric  to  form  a  mordant.  Alum  thus  pre- 
pared is  nearly,  if  not  quite  pure,  the  iron  formerly  present 
being  precipitated  by  the  process  named  above.  Alum  in 
this  state  is  called  cubical  or  basic  alum,  and  is  sometimes 
called  neutral  alum.  The  same  salt  can  be  produced  by  boil- 
ing twelve  parts  of  alum  and  one  part  of  slacked  lime  in 
Avater.  This  alum  is  often  [)referred  to  any  other,  as  it  does 
not  affect  certain  colors. 

Sulphate  of  Alumina. 

There  have  been  many  attempts  to  introduce  this  substance 
in  the  practice  of  dyers,  but  they  have  not  been  successful  until 
within  a  few-years,  as  it  contained  so  great  an  amount  of  sul- 
phate of  iron,  and  an  excess  of  sulphuric  acid  in  combination 
with  the  iron.  This  substance  would  not  have  an  atiinity  for 
cotton  unless  these  defects  were  overcome.  However,  at  the 
present  day,  with  improved  methods  of  manufacturing  it, 
sulphate  of  alumina  is  largely  prepared,  and  it  is  of  excel- 
lent quality.  It  is  sold  sometimes  under  the  name  of  con- 
centrated alum  (which  is  erroneous),  and  is  found  in  the 
market  in  square  cakes  of  a  white  color  and  nearly  trans- 
parent. 

Acetate  of  Alumina. 

The  best  and  most  conmion  preparation  of  alum,  as  a  mor- 
dant for  cotton,  is  the  acetate  of  alumina.  The  method  of 
preparing  it  is  given  under  the  head  of  Mordants  for  Cotton, 
found  in  another  part  of  this  work. 


396  THE    A^IEEICA^    DYER. 


SULPHATE  OF  INDIGO. 

This  substance  is  a  combination  of  sulphuric  acid  and 
indigo,  known  by  the  different  names  of  Saxon  blue,  extract 
of  indigo,  indigo  paste,  and  chemic. 

Dyers  do  not  make  their  chemic  now  as  much  as  in  former 
years,  it  being  found  in  the  market,  manuftictured  for  them, 
and  sold  under  the  names  of  extract  of  indijjo  and  indigo 
paste.  "When  dyers  made  their  sulphate  themselves,  each  one 
had  a  rule  or  particular  method  of  his  own,  some  using  four 
pounds  of  oil  of  vitriol  to  one  j^ound  of  indigo,  others  three 
to  one;  but  the  best  proportion,  in  my  opinion,  is  to  use 
seven  pounds  of  acid  to  one  pound  of  the  indigo,  especially 
for  greens  on  wool ;  but  for  chemic  to  work  with  aniline  blue 
and  violet  dyes,  I  prefer  using  more  acid  to  the  indigo,  say 
eight  pounds  to  one  pound  of  indigo.  It  would  be  better  for 
every  dyer  to  make  his  own  sulphate  of  indigo  (besides  cost- 
ing his  employer  less  for  it)  ;  he  would  then  know  the  correct 
amount  of  acid  he  was  usinof,  as  well  as  the  amount  of  indigo. 
Indigo  when  made  into  the  sulphate  of  indigo,  becomes  radi- 
cally changed,  and  there  is  nothing  that  can  bring  it  back  to 
its  primitive  state  again,  forming,  as  it  does,  a  chemical  com- 
pound, sulph-indigotic  acid,  called  by  dyers,  extract  of  indigo. 
Concentrated  oil  of  vitriol  is  the  only  substance  that  will  dis- 
solve indigo  without  destroying  its  color  and  composition  ; 
or,  in  other  words,  oil  of  vitriol  is  the  only  substance  that 
will  dissolve  indigo  without  deoxidizing  it,  and  it  requires 
highly  concentrated  or  fuming  oil  of  vitriol  for  that  purpose, 
as  when  other  acid  than  the  concentrated  is  used  it  requires 
a  larger  quantity  of  it  to  produce  the  desired  combination  ; 
and  where  so  much  acid  is  used,  the  solution  will  have  to  be 
neutralized  before  it  can  be  used  with  good  results. 

The  action  of  sulphuric  acid  upon  indigo  was  found  by 
Mr.  Crum  to  be  more  than  a  mere  solution  ;  it  was  a  chemical 
combination,  in  definite  proportions  (and  not  a  solution  in  the 
ordinary  sense  of  the  word),  forming  two  very  distinct  sub- 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  397 

stances,  and  greatly  differing  from  each  other  in  their  prop- 
erties. He  named  these  two  compounds,  from  their  colors, 
re7'if/m  and  ^;/<m«an,  the  latter  purple  and  the  former  blue. 
Since  this  discovery  they  have  been  named  sulpho-purpuric 
and  sul[)h-indylic  acids.  The  latter  constitutes  the  blue  prin- 
ciple of  Saxon-blue,  and  is  more  abundantly  formed  if  the 
sulphuric  acid  is  sufficiently  strong  and  abundant,  and  all 
proper  care  given  to  it  while  in  progress  of  combining. 
Its  composition  is  one  atom  of  indigo  in  combination  with  two 
atoms  of  sulphuric  acid.  The  former  (sulpho-purpuric)  is  of 
a  purple  color,  and  if  water  is  added  to  it,  precipitation  takes 
place.  Its  composition  is  equal ;  that  is,  it  has  one  atom  of 
indigo  and  one  atom  of  acid. 

By  rigid  examination  and  experiments,  it  was  found  that  it 
required  eight  pounds  of  concentrated  or  fuming  sulphuric 
acid  to  convert  one  pound  of  indigo  into  the  blue  sulph-indy- 
lic  acid,  this  compound  being  the  best  of  the  two  ;  and  in 
making  the  sulphate  of  indigo,  every  care  should  be  taken  to 
convert  the  indigo  into  this  compound,  and  so  avoid  the 
formation  of  the  sulpho-purpuric  acid.  This  latter  substance 
is  formed,  in  the  first  place,  by  using  too  small  a  quantity  of 
sulphuric  acid  in  proportion  to  the  indigo  employed  ;  and  in 
the  second  place,  dyers  are  in  too  great  haste  in  making  it, 
thereby  not  allowing  time  for  it  to  digest. 

When  the  indigo  is  first  added  to  the  acid,  there  appears,  to 
the  eye,  a  solution  of  the  indigo,  almost  instantaneous  ;  but 
such  is  not  the  case  ;  which  is  shown  by  spreading  a  few  drops 
upon  a  piece  of  glass,  when  we  perceive  a  dirty  greenish 
color;  and  after  remaining  upon  the  glass  for  a  short  time, 
there  will  be  a  yellow-colored  liquid  running  out  from  it. 
This  yellow-colored  liquid  is  no  doubt  caused  by  the  acid 
absorbing  moisture  from  the  surrounding  atmosphere,  this 
moisture  causing  it  to  separate  from  the  indigo,  thus  showing 
to  us  very  clearly  that  there  is  not  an  immediate  solution  of 
the  indigo,  when  it  is  added  to  the  sulphuric  acid.  If  the 
indigo  used  in  this  case  is  of  a  poor  quality,  the   darker  and 


898  THE    AMEKICAX   DYER. 

greener  it  will  appear  upon  the  glass ;  and  after  it  has  been 
mixed  for  a  few  hours,  and  then  a  few  drops  of  it  put  upon  a 
piece  of  glass,  the  same  as  l)efore,  we  find  that  it  has  a  pur- 
plish-red appearance ;  the  greater  part  of  the  compound  is 
sulpho-purpuric  acid.  Mr.  Cruni  says  that  after  the  color  of 
the  solution  has  assumed  a  bottle-green,  and  it  is  then  diluted 
with  water,  the  action  of  the  acid  is  stopped,  and  there  is 
then  formed  the  sulpho-purpuric  acid.  But  there  are  other 
means  besides  diluting  the  acid  with  water,  that  will  stop  the 
action  of  sulphuric  acid  upon  the  indigo. 

It  has  been  already  stated,  that  it  requires  a  highly  concen- 
trated oil  of  vitriol  to  convert  the  indigo  into  sulph-indylic 
acid.  We  find  dyers  very  often  who  change  the  strength  of 
their  chemic  by  the  method  of  preparing  or  mixing  it.  They 
will  mix  it  in  the  jar  and  leave  it  uncovered,  thus  allowing 
the  acid  to  absorb  moisture  from  the  atmosphere  ;  or,  in  some 
cases,  they  will  put  the  jar  into  a  tub  of  hot  water,  or  place 
it  on  the  top  of  the  steam-boiler.  By  thus  doing  they  cause 
the  acid  to  absorb  water  very  rapidly,  thus  diluting  it  below 
the  required  strength  for  dissolving  the  indigo,  and  causing 
the  formation  of  the  sulpho-purpuric  acid,  instead  of  the 
sulph-indylic  acid,  the  latter  being  the  real  compound  that  is 
wanted. 

As  already  stated,  the  sulpho-purpuric  acid  is  formed,  in 
one  instance,  by  the  dyer  putting  the  jar  or  vessel,  in  which 
he  has  mixed  his  acid  and  indigo,  into  a  tub  containing  boil- 
ing water.  Sometimes,  in  making  chemic,  the  heat  of  the 
mixture  becomes  so  low  that  it  does  not  promote  the  chemical 
action  whereby  the  combination  of  the  acid  and  indigo  can  be 
effected  ;  in  this  case  putting  the  vessel  into  hot  water  would 
not  form  sulpho-purpuric  acid  ;  that  is,  if  care  is  taken  not  to 
allow  the  hot  water  to  heat  the  solution  above  the  boiling 
point. 

In  speaking  of  the  causes  of  stopping  the  action  of  the 
acid  upon  the  indigo,  there  is  another  cause  for  it,  and  that  is 
the  indigo  itself.     We  know  that  ground  indigo  will  absorb  a 


THE    AMERICAl^^  DYER.  399 

quantity  of  moisture,  and  this  moisture  will  necessarily  di- 
lute the  acid  when  the  indigo  is  added  to  the  acid  ;  therefore, 
it  should  be  thoroughly  dried  by  some  means  or  other,  before 
addiuij  it  to  the  acid,  or  the  acid  will  be  too  much  weakened 
to  produce  or  form  sulph-indylic  acid,  the  substance  we  want. 

Sometimes  the  indigo  is  added  ail  at  once  to  the  acid,  which 
causes  a  great  evolution  of  heat,  thereby  decomposing  the 
impurities  contained  in  the  indigo,  and  a  part  of  the  acid  is 
also  decomposed,  giving  otf  a  large  amount  of  sulphurous 
gas.  Indigo  that  is  treated  in  this  manner  very  seldom  makes 
good  chemic,  and  when  a  few  drops  are  placed  upon  a  piece 
of  glass,  it  has  a  blackish-green  appearance,  sometimes  a 
dirty  purple  color,  but  seldom  the  blue  violet,  and  very  rarely 
the  fijie  beautitul  blue. 

The  sulpho-purpuric  acid  contained  in  the  sulphate  of  indigo 
is  precipitated  when  the  suli)hate  of  indigo  is  diluted  with 
water,  the  sulpho-purpuric  acid  dissolves  in  alkalies,  and 
gives  a  blue  color,  of  a  greater  or  less  purity,  according  to 
the  alkali  employed  as  the  solvent. 

The  dyer  now  very  seldom  prepares  his  own  chemic,  it 
being  manufactured  for  him,  and  sold  by  the  name  of  ex- 
tract of  indigo.  The  following  is  the  process  of  its  prepara- 
tion : — 

The  indigo  is  dissolved  in  concentrated  sulphuric  acid 
(different  manufacturers  using  different  proportions).  It  is 
then  diluted  with  hot  water.  The  whole  is  put  upon  a  tilter 
of  woolen  cloth,  which  separates  the  insoluble  impurities  of 
the  indigo.  The  solution  which  has  passed  through  the  cloth, 
is  put  into  a  leaden  vessel,  and  there  evaporated  to  about 
three  gallons  for  every  pound  of  indigo  used.  There  is  then 
added  to  it  from  three  to  four  pounds  of  salt  to  the  pound  of 
indigo,  and  then  well  stirred  up  (by  this  means  all  the  sulpho- 
indylic  acid  is  precipitated).  The  whole  is  then  thrown  upon 
another  filter  of  woolen  cloth.  There  it  remains  until  it  has 
drained  sufficiently.  It  is  then  put  into  earthen  jars,  ready 
for  sale,  and  is  called  extract  of  indigo. 


400  THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 

Some  makers  put  soda  and  a  little  ammonia  into  the  extract, 
which  gives  it  that  bloomy  appearance  we  sometimes  see. 
A  pound  of  good  indigo  will  make  about  fourteen  pounds  of 
extract,  if  proper  care  and  management  are  taken  in  the  prep- 
aration of  the  extract.  There  are  various  adulterations  to 
sulphate  of  indigo,  Sometimes  insoluble  matter  is  added,  but 
not  often,  as  it  injures  the  appearance  of  the  extract,  and 
those  makers  who  do  it,  are  the  losers  by  the  operation ;  for 
although  the  dyer  may  not  have  the  facilities  to  test  the  ex- 
tract, he  will  very  soon  ascertain  by  experience  the  working 
value  of  it.  Some  makers  add  lime  and  barytes  to  their 
extract,  which  gives  an  insoluble  precipitate,  and  adds  weight 
to  the  extract ;  but  this  practice  generally  re-acts  upon  the 
maker,  and  he  is  the  loser  rather  than  the  gainer  by  the  opera- 
tion. 

The  method  that  I  adopt  for  making  this  article  is  as  fol- 
lows :  — 

In  the  first  place,  I  endeavor  to  obtain  the  very  best 
ground  indigo.  Then  dry  it  as  much  as  possible  by  placing 
it  either  on  the  top  of  the  boiler,  or  in  the  dry-house.  Then, 
for  every  pound  of  indigo  that  I  intend  to  use,  I  take  seven 
pounds  of  concentrated  oil  of  vitriol,  using  a  glazed  earthen 
jar,  adding  the  indigo  gradually  (say  about  one-half  at  a  time), 
stirring  it  all  the  time,  until  the  indigo  is  all  thoroughly 
moistened  by  the  acid.  Then,  in  the  course  of  fifteen  or 
twenty  minutes,  add  the  remainder  of  the  indigo,  stirring  it 
as  before,  and  stir  it  during  the  day  at  intervals.  Do  not  use 
it  until  it  is  two  or  three  days'  old.  When  making  the 
sulphate,  do  not  set  the  jar  in  the  dye-house,  where  it  will 
absorb  moisture  from  the  steam  and  vapors  arising  from  the 
various  dye-tubs.  The  jar  should  be  kept  covered,  and  placed 
where  the  heat  (caused  by  the  combination  of  the  acid  and 
indigo)  can  be  kept  at  160°  F.  As  the  combination  takes 
place,  the  compound  will  assume  a  frothy  appearance ;  will 
increase  iu  volume,  and  a  great  deal  of  heat  is  generated,  with 
the  disengagement  of  sulj)hur()us  acid  gas.     These  are  the 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  401 

certain  results  of  the  combination ;  and  when  they  have 
ceased,  the  chemical  union  is  completed.  Sulphate  of  indigo 
does  not  give  a  permanent  color ;  yet  it  can  be  made  to  resist 
the  alkalies  and  the  fulling  process  very  well,  by  mordanting 
the  wool  or  cloth  with  bichromate  of  potash,  alum,  and  tin 
crystals  (see  Recipes  for  Greens,  in  another  part  of  this  work). 

^Crystallized  Acetate  of  Lead  (ix  Crystals,  PbO,C4H;jQ3 
+3H0),  OR,  Sugar  of  Lead  (PbCC^HaO,). 
This  salt  is  composed  of — 

Oxide  of  lead,  .  .  .  58.71, 
Acetic  acid,  .  .  .  27.08, 
Water,      ....     14.21,  in  100  parts. 

Sugar  of  lead  is  manufactured  by  exposing  the  metallic  lead 
to  the  action  of  rectified  or  wood  vinegar  (acetic  acid),  and  to 
the  atmosphere.  The  lead  decomposes  the  acetic  acid,  form- 
ing carbonate  of  lead.  This  carbonate  is  then  easily  decom- 
posed by  adding  more  acid  to  it,  which  combines  with  the 
carbonate  of  lead,  forming  acetate  of  lead,  and  the  carbonic 
acid  is  all  evolved.  This  is  not  the  only  method  adopted  to 
prepare  sugar  of  lead.  Some  makers  immerse  sheets  of  lead 
in  a  wooden  tub  containing  vinegar,  so  constructed  that  the 
upper  sheets  will  be  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere. 
Tho  action  of  the  air  causes  a  crust  of  carbonate  to  form  on 
the  sheets  of  lead  thus  exposed.  Then  these  sheets  are  put 
to  the  bottom  of  the  tub,  and  those  at  the  bottom  to  the  top, 
where  they  will  be  exposed  to  the  same  course  of  action. 
This  shifting  the  sheets  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  is  for  the 
purpose  of  allowing  the  acid  to  decompose  the  carl)onate 
formed  upon  the  lead.  This  decomposition  forms  the  acetate 
of  lead.  Another  process  is  to  allow  vapors  of  vinegar  to 
pass  over  sheets  of  lead,  and  the  carbonate  that  is  formed  by 
the  vapors  is  collected  or  scraped  from  the  sheets,  and  then 
put  into  a  tub  containing  strong  vinegar  ;  and  in  Ijoth  of  these 
51 


402  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

processes,  when  the  vinegar  ceases  to  decompose  any  more  of 
the  carbonate,  it  is  then  drawn  ofi"  into  tinned  copper  pans,  or 
wooden  tubs,  and  allowed  to  crystallize.  Acetate  of  lead  is 
also  prepared  by  boiling  litharge  in  wood  vinegar  in  a  leaden 
boiler,  constantl}'  being  stirred,  in  order  to  prevent  the  litharge 
adhering  to  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  boiler.  When  a 
proper  amount  of  litharge  is  dissolved,  there  is  then  enough 
cold  water  added  to  the  solution  to  cool  it  down  just  below 
the  boiling  point.  After  the  solution  has  settled,  the  clear 
liquid  is  drawn  off  into  proper  vessels,  where  it  is  left  to 
crystallize. 

All  the  dift'erence  in  making  the  white  and  l)rown  sugar  of 
lead,  is  that,  for  the  white,  the  solution  is  filtered  through 
bone-black  before  it  is  set  away  to  crystallize.  The  best  ace- 
tate for  coloring  oranges,  amber-color,  and  deep  3'ellows  on 
cotton-cloth  or  yarn,  is  that  which  is  composed  of  three  parts 
of  lead  to  one  part  of  acid  in  its  combination.  It  is  prepared 
in  the  dve-house  by  boiling  sugar  of  lead  and  litharire  together, 
and  adding  a  very  small  quantity  of  lime,  different  dyers  using 
different  proportions.  One  hundred  parts  of  litharge  will 
yield  one  hundred  and  fifty  parts  of  acetate  of  lead.  Acetate 
of  lead  is  not  used  in  woolon-dyei)ig,  but  is  largely  used  in 
cotton-dyeing  and  calico-printing,  in  making  acetate  of 
alumina,  chrome-yellow,  and  chrome-orange.  It  is  also  used 
to  make  varnishes. 

Acetate  of  lead,  when  submitted  to  drv  distillation,  yields 
neutral  carbonate  of  lead  and  acetone,  which  will  volatilize. 
When  heated  with  sulphuric  acid,  it  yields  acetic  acid,  sulphate 
of  lead  remaining  in  the  retort. 

Acetate  of  lead  is  extensively  manufactured  in  Germany, 
Holland,  France,  England,  and  in  the  United  States.  It  is 
principally  consumed  in  the  art  of  dyeing  and  calico-printing, 
in  which  it  is  employed  to  form  with  alum  the  acetate  of 
alumina.  Its  taste  is  at  first  sweet,  and  afterwards  astrinn-ent. 
When  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  it  efHoresces  slowly.  It 
dissolves  in   four   times   its   weight  of  cold  water,  and   in  a 


THE    A3IERICAX   DYER.  403 

much  smaller  quantity  of  boiling  water;  it  is  also  soluble  in 
alcohol.  Its  solution  in  water  is  turbid,  in  conso(iiience  of 
the  formation  of  carbonate  of  lead  with  the  carl)()nic  acid 
always  found  in  river-water ;  but  this  turbidness  can  be 
removed  i)y  adding  a  small  proportion  of  vinegar  or  diluted 
acetic  acid  to  the  water.  In  pure  distilled  water  it  ought  to 
entirely  dissolve,  and  leave  a  clear  solution. 

As  il  is  found  in  commerce,  it  contains  as  impurities,  sul- 
phate and  carbonate  of  lead.  "Mr.  John  Mackay  of  London, 
analyzed  a  sample  of  acetate  of  lead  obtained  in  the  London 
market,  which  contained  nearly  thirty  per  cent,  of  sulphate 
of  lead"  (PbSOy).  Sulphuric  acid,  when  added  to  a  solu- 
tion of  acetate  of  lead,  will  produce  instantly  a  precipitate  of 
sulphate  of  lead,  and  the  fumes  emitted  have  the  odor  of  vin- 
egar, which  is  owing  to  the  disengaged  acetic  acid. 

An  important  property  of  sugar  of  lead  is  its  power  of  dis- 
solving a  large  quantity  of  litharge. 

Acetate  of  lead  consists  of  one  equivalent  of  acetic  acid, 
51.0;  one  equivalent  of  protoxide  of  lead,  111.5;  and  three 
of  Avater,  27.0;  making  its  prime  equivalent==18i).5,  and  its 
formula  (PbCQHsOa+SHO). 


PROTOXIDE  OF  LEAD  (=PbO),  OR  LITHARGE. 

This  substance  is  composed  of  equal  proportions  of  lead 
and  oxygen,  and  is  obtained  as  a  bi-product  of  the  separation 
of  silver  from  lead  ;  it  is  also  obtained  by  exposing  metallic 
lead,  when  at  a  red  heat,  to  a  current  of  air;  the  oxygen  of 
air  combining  with  the  lead,  converts  the  lead  into  a  semi- 
fluid  mass  ;  when  this  mass  cools,  it  forms  crystals  of  a  green- 
ish-yellow color.*  When  this  oxide  of  lead  is  kept  a  few 
months,  it  falls  into  a  scaly  crystalline  powder,  and  has  a 
brick-red  color.  This  is  the  principal  oxide  from  which 
acetate  and  other  salts  of  lead  are  prepared  for  use  in   the 


404  THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 

dye-house.  Litharge  always  .contains  more  or  less  oxide 
of  copper  (CuO),  oxide  of  antimony  (SK.Oa),  and  traces  of 
oxide  of  silver  (Ag.^Oy)  ;  it  also  contains  metallic  lead,  vary- 
ing in  amount  from  one  and  one-fourth  per  cent,  to  three  per 
cent.  The  oxide  of  copper  can  be  removed  from  it  by  digest- 
in":  the  litharuje  with  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  ammonia 
(NH  ,.2^.2^3) >  ^^^6  solution  to  be  cold.  Litharge,  when  good 
and  not  adulterated,  will  have  a  crystalline  lustre,  and  will 
become  completely  soluble  in  nitric  acid.  The  adulterations 
of  litharge  are,  generally  speaking,  brick-dust,  iron,  and 
copper.  These  can  be  detected  by  digesting  the  litharge  in 
nitric  acid  ;  and  if  brick-dust  is  present,  it  remains  insoluble 
and  will  be  apparent,  and  by  adding  ammonia  to  the  solution, 
the  litharge  is  precipitated,  and  the  precipitate  will  be  of  a 
brown  color;  and  if  it  contains  copper,  the  solution  will  be 
blue-colored.  But  these  adulterations  are  not  injurious  to  it, 
for  the  purposes  for  which  it  is  used  in  the  dye-house. 

Litharge  is  not  employed  in  woolen  dyeing.  It  is  employed 
in  cotton-dyeing  and  calico-printing  for  making  acetate  of  lead. 
(See  Recipes  for  making  Lead  Solutions.) 

The  fine-powdered  litharge  sometimes  met  with  in  the  trade, 
is  very  often  adulterated  with  sulphate  of  barium  (BaSO^), 
which  can  be  detected  by  dissolving  some  of  the  litharge  in 
diluted  nitric  acid,  but  the  small  scale  litharge  cannot  be  very 
easily  adulterated.  The  English  litharge  is  considered  the 
best,  that  from  Germany  being  generally  contaminated  with 
iron  and  copper.  Li  choosing  litharge,  samples  should  be 
selected  that  are  free  from  copper,  and  fragments  of  vegetable 
matters.  There  are  two  varieties  of  litharge,  called  the  gold 
or  red  litharge,  and  the  silver  or  yellow  litharge.  The  former 
kind  is  said  to  owe  its  color  to  a  portion  of  red  lead  l^eing  in 
the  litharge,  but  M.  Leblanc  has  shown  that  the  two  varieties 
differ  only  in  color,  structure,  and  density,  and  not  in  their 
chemical  composition.  "Red  lead  can  be  detected  in  litharge 
by  heating  it  in  a  test-tube,  with  chloride  of  sodium  (salt) 
and  bisulphate  of  potassa,  and  then  putting  in  a  piece  of  paper 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  40."> 

colored  blue  by  indigo;  if  red  lead  is  present  in  t!ie  lilluirfe, 
the  paper  will  be  bleached  by  the  chlorine  evolved." 


SULPHATE    OF    COPPER,   CUPRIC    SULPHATE 
(CuSO,),  OR  BLUE  VITRIOL  (CuOSO,+5HO). 

There  are  numerous  methods  of  preparing  this  salt :  — 

First.  One  method  is  to  heat  sheets  of  copper  (Cu)  in  a 
reverberatory  furnace  to  the  boiling  point  of  sulphur  (420° 
Fahr.)  ;  there  is  then  a  quantity  of  sulphur  thrown  into  the 
furnace,  the  openings  and  flues  of  the  furnace  being  closed  ; 
the  result  is  the  formation  of  sulphide  of  copper  (CuoS). 
This  sulphide  is  converted,  by  a  low  heat  and  the  action  of 
the  oxygen  of  the  air,  into  the  sulphate  of  copper.  The 
mass  is  then  placed  in  stone  troughs  and  oil  of  vitriol  is  added 
in  sufficient  quantity  to  saturate  the  oxide  of  copper  (CuO)  ; 
the  clear  solution  is  taken  out  and  set  aside  for  crystalliza- 
tion. 

Second.  The  crude  copper  obtained  from  smelting  the  ore, 
which  contains  about  sixty  per  cent,  of  the  metal,  is  treated 
with  sulphuric  acid.  This  solution  is  evaporated  in  leaden 
vessels  and  the  clear  liquid  is  put  into  copper  pans  to  crystal- 
lize. From  the  mother-liquor  left  from  the  crystals,  metallic 
copper  is  precipitated  with  iron,  there  being  large  quantities 
of  iron  in  this  mother-liquor;  it  is  then  unfit  for  using  again 
to  make  sulphate  of  copper.  This  last  method  of  preparing 
blue  vitriol  is  the  least  expensive,  but  it  is  not  quite  pure, 
and,  according  to  M.  Herter's  analysis,  it  contains  about  three 
per  cent,  of  sulphate  of  iron  and  0.083  per  cent,  of  metallic 
nickel. 

This  salt  is  also  prepared  or  manufactured  in  the  same 
manner  as  copperas  (protosulphate  of  iron,  SO^Fe)  ;  that  is, 
from  the  sulphurets  of  the  metal. 

A  chemically  pure  sulphate  of  copper  is  made  by  heating  the 


40G  THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 

metallic  copper  with  highly  concentrated  oil  of  vitriol,  the 
copper  becomes  oxidized  by  a  portion  of  the  oxygen  of  the 
acid  and  sulphurous  acid  escaping  (SO^).  Charcoal  would 
produce  sulphurous  acid  if  heated  with  sulphuric  acid. 

If  the  metallic  copper  was  converted  into  the  oxide  of  cop- 
per (CuO),  by  being  brought  to  a  red  heat  lirst,  it  would 
then  require  but  half  the  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid.  In  pre- 
paring the  base  for  the  different  pigments  obtained  from  cop- 
per, the  sulphate  of  copper  is  very  often  used  ;  but  it  should 
be  nearly  pure,  or  should  not  contain  either  the  sulphate  of 
zinc  or  iron. 

Sulphate  of  copper  yields  blue  crystals  (hence  the  name 
blue  vitriol)  ;  these  crystals  contain  five  parts  of  water;  four 
of  them  will  be  given  off  if  they  are  heated  to  212°  Fahr., 
and  at  this  temperature  they  become  white.  Blue  vitriol  is 
soluble  in  twice  its  weight  of  boiling  water  and  four  times  its 
weight  of  cold  water.     It  is  composed  of — 

Sulphuric  acid,  ....  32.14 
Oxide  of  copper,  ....  31.79 
Water, 36.07  =  100 

The  crystals  effloresce  in  a  dry  atmosphere  and  become  a 
white  powder.  Blue  vitriol  is  insoluble  in  alcohol.  Blue 
vitriol  in  crystals,  as  received  by  dyers,  has  a  rich,  deep,  clear 
blue  color  and  a  strong  metallic  taste.  It  reddens  blues 
produced  by  vegetable  dyes.  It  is  soluble  in  four  parts  of 
cold  and  in  two  parts  of  boiling  water.  When  heated  it  first 
melts  in  its  water  of  crystallization  and  then  dries  and  be- 
comes white.  If  the  heat  is  increased,  it  next  undergoes  the 
igneous  fusion,  and  finally,  at  a  high  temperature,  loses  its 
acid,  protoxide  of  copper  (CuO)  being  left. 

Sulphate  of  copper  is  decomposed  by  the  alkaline  carbon- 
ates, and  by  borax,  acetate,  and  subacetate  of  lead,  acetate  of 
iron  and  chloride  of  lime  ;  it  is  also  precipitated  by  all  astrin- 
gent vegetable  decoctions.     If  it  becomes  very  green  upon 


THE    AMERICAX   DYER.   ^  407 

the  siiface,  by  beiii*^  exposed   to   the   air,   it  contains  sosqui- 
oxide  of  iron  (Fo.,()..).     This  oxide  may  likewise  l)e  detected 
by  ammonia,  which  will  throw  it  down  along  with  the  oxide 
of  copper  without  taking  it  up  when  added  in  excess. 
Sulphate  of  copper  consists  of  — 

One  proportion  of  sulphuric  acid,  .  .  =40.00 
One  proportion  of  protoxide  of  copper,  .  =:39.75 
Five  proportions  of  water,      .         .         .      :=45.00=:124.75 

Making  its  prime  equivalent  124.75;  but,  according  to 
Berzelius,  it  is  124.7. 

Chloride  of  copper  (CuCl)  is  prepared  by  killing  muriatic 
acid  with  copper,  this  causing  a  double  decomposition  to  take 
place,  the  solution  being  of  a  green  color ;  this  solution  can 
be  crystallized,  and  the  crystals  are  blue  colored. 

Nitrate  of  copper  (oHNOa3Cu)  is  prepared  in  the  same 
manner  as  nitrate  of  iron  ;  that  is,  nitric  acid  is  killed  with 
copper;  the  action  wjll  be  the  same  with  each  of  the  metals. 
Nitrate  of  copper,  by  evaporation,  produces  deep  blue-colored 
crystals ;  the}'^  are  deliquescent  in  the  atmosphere  and  are 
very  soluble  in  water. 

Acetate  of  CorPER,  Verdigris  (QHaOaCu). 

This  was  formerly  prepared  by  exposing  sheets  of  copper 
to  the  action  of  vinegar  (acetic  acid,  C4O4H.,).  This  salt  we 
find  in  dark-green  crystals,  containing  one  part  acid  to  two  of 
copper.  The  manner  of  preparing  it  at  the  present  day,  for 
calico-printing  and  dyeing,  is  as  follows  :  — 

Take  four  pounds  of  blue  vitriol,  dissolve  it  in  four  quarts 
of  water  ;  then  dissolve  three  pounds  of  white  sugar  of  lead 
in  one  quart  of  water ;  mix  these  two  solutions  together ;  let 
it  settle,  and  use  the  clear  solution  only.  This  should  indi- 
cate 18°  Baume.  The  mixing  of  the  lead  and  copper  solu- 
tions causes  a  double  decomposition  to  take  place,  the  result 
being  crystals,  or  crystallized  verdigris ;  the  verdigris  paste 


408  THE    A3IERICAX   DYER. 


I 


having  a  blue  color,  being  a  basic  salt  called  French  verdigris, 
and  is  but  up  in  leather  bags  and  pressed  into  cakes. 


YELLOW  PKUSSIATE   OF   POTASH.— (Ferroctanide 

OF  Potassium,  K^FeCye+SHgO). 
This  salt,  in  a  technical  point  of  view,  is  a  very  important 
substance.  It  crystallizes  in  large  lemon-colored  prismatic- 
shaped  crystals.  These  crystals  are  not  affected  by  exposure 
to  the  atmosphere,  neither  are  they  poisonous  ;  they  have  a 
sweetish-bitter  taste  ;  they  dissolve  in  four  times  their  weight 
of  cold  water,  and  twice  their  weight  of  boiling  water ;  but 
they  are  insoluble  in  alcohol.     They  contain  in  100  parts, — 

Potassium,     ......         37.03 

^  (  Carbon,         ....         17.04 

Cyanogen  <  ^^  ' 

-^       ^      ^Nitrogen,      ....         19.89 

Iron, :         .         13.25 

Water, 12.75 

At.lOO°  Fahr.,  the  water  is  driven  off. 

This  salt  is  prepared  on  a  large  scale  by  burning  hoofs, 
horns,  hides,  old  woolen  rags,  and  all  such  substances  as 
contain  nitrogen,  with  carbonate  of  potash  (KgCOg).  The 
quantity  of  the  materials  may  be  varied ;  the  relative  propor- 
tions are  given  by  some  manufacturers  as  one  hundred 
parts  of  carbonate  of  potassa  (potash)  to  seventy-five  parts  of 
the  nitrogenous  carbon.  Runge  gives  as  his  method,  on'e 
hundred  parts  of  carbonate  of  potassa,  four  hundred  of  cal- 
cined (burnt)  horn,  and  ten  of  iron-filings.  As  a  general 
practice  these  substances  are  burnt  in  a  cast-iron  cylinder  or 
a  reverberatory  furnace,  before  b6ing  mixed  with  the  carbonate 
of  potash ;  but  if  these  substances  are  used  before  being  cal- 
cined, they  are  mixed  in  the  ratio  of  nine  of  the  charcoal  to 


THE    AMEKICAN   DYER.  409 

one  of  the  potash  ;  but  if  the  substances  are  burned  as  above- 
mentioned,  one  and  a  half  parts  of  the  charcoal  are  mixed  with 
one  part  of  potash. 

When  the  nitrogenous  carbon  (animal  matters)  is  used 
without  the  process  of  being  previously  charred,  the  furnace 
is  left  open,  so'that  the  materials  can  be  occasionally  stirred, 
which  allows  the  obnoxious  gases  to  escape,  after  which  the 
furnace  is  closed  and  the  heat  is  increased.  The  heat  is  con- 
tinued for  some  fourteen  hours,  and  at  intervals  of  one  hour 
the  furnace  is  opened  and  the  materials  are  stirred.  They 
continue  this  stirring  until  no  flame  rises  to  the  surface,  and 
the  whole  is  reduced  to  a  red,  semi-fluid  mass. 

The  whole  mass  is  then  scraped  out  of  the  furnace  and 
allowed  to  cool ;  after  cooling  it  is  dissolved  in  water  and  the 
solution  filtered  through  cloth,  and  then  evaporated  to  a  proper 
consistency  ;  coarse  strings  are  now  suspended  throughout  the 
liquid  ;  upon  these  strings  the  crystals  form,  of  a  lemon-yellow 
color. 

The  theory  of  the  formation  of  yellow  prussiate  of  potash  is 
as  follows  :  "  The  carbonate  and  sulphate  of  potash,  the  nitrog- 
enous coal  and  the  iron  re-acting  upon  each  other,  give  rise 
to  the  formation  of  sulphuret  of  potassium,  which  in  its  turn 
converts  the  iron  into  sulphuret,  while  the  nitrogen  contained 
in  the  charcoal  unites,  under  the  influence  of  potassium,  with 
the  cyanogen  of  the  carbon,  which  again  in  its  turn  combines 
with  the  potassium,  giving  rise  to  the  formation  of  cyauide  of 
potassium  (KCN)." 

"When  the  fused  mass  is  treated  with  water,  cyanide  of 
potassium  (KCN)  and  sulphuret  of  iron  (SFe)  decompose 
each  other,  the  result  being  the  formation  of  ferrocyanide 
and  sulphide  of  potassium,  the  sulphide  remaining  in  the 
mother-liquor." 

Yellow  prussiate  of  potash  is  employed  for  the  preparation 
of  red  cyanide  or  prussiate  for  making  Berlin  blue,  and  of 
cyanide  of  potassium.  It  is  used  in  calico-printing  and  cotton- 
dyeing  (seldom  in  woolen-dyeing)  for  producing  blues  (see 

52 


410  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

recipes  for  cotton-yarn),  and  some  brown-red  colors,  and  for 
the  purpose  of  hardening  iron,  and  as  an  ingredient  in  white 
gunpowder,  and  for  use  in  chemical  laboratories. 

Yellow  prussiate  crystallizes  with  three  proportions  of 
water,  but  loses  all  its  water  of  crystallization  at  212°  Fahr., 
and  becomes  white. 

Ferricyanide  of   Potassium,  or  Red  Prussiate  of  Pot- 
ash (KgFeCy). 
This  salt  is  prepared  on  a  large  scale,  and  is  very  exten- 
■  sively  used  in  dyeing  cottons  and  in  calico-printing ;  it  is  also 
used  to  a  great  extent  in  the  woolen  dye-house.     This   salt 
cr^'stallizes  in  prismatically-shaped   ruby-red  colored  anhy- 
drous crystals,  and  consists  in  100  parts  of — 

Potassium,       .....         35.58 

^  C  Carbon,  .         .         .         21.63 

Cyanogen  <  ^^.  r.^  . . 

^       ^      ^Nitrogen,       .         .         .         25.54 

Iron, ■         17.29 

There  are  two  methods  for  preparing  this  salt.  One  is  :  The 
yellow  prussiate  is  dissolved  in  water ;  then  the  solution  is 
submitted  to  the  action  of  chlorine  gas,  until  a  sample  of  the 
solution  will,  when  heated,  show  no  precipitate  if  a  per-salt 
of  iron  is  added  to  the  solution  ;  after  which  it  is  evaporated 
and  then  crystallized.  Another  method  is  to  pulverize  the 
yellow  prussiate  and  place  it  in  casks,  closed,  so  as  to  leave 
only  a  small  outlet,  while  the  cask  can  by  means  of  machinery 
be  slowly  turned  on  its  axis,  so  as  to  bring  all  the  particles  of 
the  prussiate  in  contact  with  the  chlorine  as  it  passes  through 
the  cask.  Sometimes  the  powdered  yellow  prussiate  is  placed 
on  shelves  in  a  chamber,  and  into  this  chamber  at  the  top  chlo- 
rine gas  is  admitted  ;  after  the  powdered  prussiate  has  become 
saturated  with  the  gas  (it  is  then  still  in  a  dry  powder),  it  is 
taken  and  dissolved  in  the  smallest  possible  amount  of  water, 
then  this  solution  is  allowed  to  crystallize  ;  the  liquid  left  after 


THE    AMEKICAN    DYER.  411 

crystallization  contains  chloride  of  potassium  (KCl).  The 
powdered  red  prnssiate  of  potash  is  an  orange-yellow  color, 
and  if  sulphuric  acid  is  mixed  with  this  powder  it  will  deprive 
it  of  its  color,  but  by  absorption  of  moisture  it  will  turn  back 
to  its  color  asfain.  According  to  M.  E.  Reichart's  investisa- 
tions,  bromine  can  be  successfuUly  used  instead  of  chlorine  for 
the  preparation  of  this  salt. 

Red  prnssiate  is  soluble  in  the  same  amount  of  water  that 
the  yellow  prnssiate  is. 

BlCHR03IATE     OF     POTASSA  —  AciD    ChROMATE,     OR     ChROME 

(K,CrA). 

This  salt  is  prepared  from  yellow  chromate,  which  is  pro- 
duced by  the  following  method  : — 

"Chrome  iron  ore,  after  being  ground  and  sifted,  is  mixed 
with  dried  nitrate  and  carbonate  of  potash.  This  mixture  is 
put  into  a  reverberating  furnace,  and  a  powerful  heat  applied. 
It  is  stirred  occasionally,  and  when  perfectly  calcined,  the 
mass  is  raked  out  and  dissolved  in  water.  It  is  then  boiled 
for  some  hours.  After  it  has  done  boiling,  it  is  allowed  to 
settle,  and  the  solution  is  decanted;  this  is  evaporated,  and 
leaves  the  yellow  chromate  of  potash  crystallized."  The 
chemical  changes  which  take  place  are  these:  "First,  the 
decomposition  of  the  nitre  giving  off  oxygen,  which  combines 
with  the  oxide  of  chromium,  and  forms  chromic  acid.  This 
acid  then  unites  with  the  potash  of  the  nitrate  and  of  the  car- 
bonate, and  this  forms  the  yellow  salt,  which  is  soluble  in 
water.  It  contains  soluble  impurities,  such  as  caustic  potash, 
silicate,  and  aluminate  of  potash  ;  these  impurities  are  separ- 
ated by  the  operation  of  boiling  and  crystallization." 

"Bichromate  is  obtained  from  the  yellow  salt,  described 
above,  by  the  addition  of  acetic  and  sulphuric  acid  to  a  con- 
centrated solution  of  yellow  chromate.  This  last  named  acid 
is  not  well  adapted  for  the  purpose,  as  the  sulphate  of  potash 
formed  by  the  snlphuric  acid  is  very  difficult  to  separate  from 
the  chromate,  and  is  a  serious  adulteration ;  for  which  reason 


412  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

sulphuric  acid  is  not  now  used  as  much  as  formerly.     Acetic 
acid  is  the  best,  and  is  now,  as  a  general  rule,  employed." 

"When  acetic  acid  is  used,  there  is  just  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  it  added  to  combine  with  one-half  of  the  potash  contained 
in  the  yellow  chromate,  which  leaves  two  proportions  of 
chromic  acid  (H2Cr04),  in  union  with  the  otlier  half  of  the 
potash,  and  may  be  thus  expressed  : — 

2K2Cr04 

Yellow  cbrouiate. 

K 

Potash. 
IQO3H3 

Acetic  acid. 

K 

Potash. 


Bichromate  of  potash. 

J 

>  Acetate  of  potash. 


If  sulphuric  acid  was  used,  and  no  acetic  acid,  it  would  be 
expressed  thus  : — 


2K2Cr04 

+ 

H.SO, 

Yellow  chromate. 

Sulphuric  acid. 

K^SO^         + 

HoO 

+         KgCr^O; 

Sul]>liate  of  ijotash. 

Water. 

Bichromate  of  potash, 

When  bichromate  of  potash  has  been  prepared  with  sul- 
phuric acid,  it  contains  sulphate  of  potash  to  a  great  extent, 
which  is  detrimental  in  its  application  as  a  mordant  for  colors 
on  wool  or  woolen  fabrics.  The  sulphate  of  potassa  can  be 
detected,  b}^  dissolving  a  small  quantity  of  bichromate  in  some 
distilled  water ;  then  add  to  the  solution  a  very  little  of  con- 
centrated nitric  acid,  and  then  a  few  drops  of  either  nitrate 
or  chloride  of  barium,  which  will  throw  down  a  white  precip- 
itate, if  there  is  any  sulphate  of  potash  in  the  chrome.  The 
chloride  of  potassium  can  be  detected  by  the  above  operation, 
only  substituting  nitrate  of  silver  in  the  place  of  the  barium  ; 
the  result  will  be  a  white  precipitate.  "  When  acetic  acid 
alone  is  used  in  a  concentrated  solution  of  yellow  chromate. 


THE    AMEKICAX   DYER.  413 

the  bichromate  that  is  formed  does  not  have  as  much  water  as 
will  hold  it  in  solution,  therefore  it  is  precipitated  as  an 
orange-colored  powder.  This  powder  is  collected  carefully, 
and  dissolved  and  crystallized  by  slow  evaporation."  "  Bi- 
chromate is  soluble  in  three  times  its  weight  of  cold  water, 
and  an  equal  weight  of  boiling  water."  A  solution  of  chrome 
is  very  caustic  and  poisonous.  "When  heated  to  redness,  this 
salt  gives  off  oxygen,  leaving  the  oxide  of  chromium  and 
neutral  chromate  of  potash  in  the  retort. 

In  the  year  1820,  M.  Koechlin  discovered  the  applicability 
of  bichromate  of  potash  as  a  "  discharge  "  for  Turkey-red, 
produced  from  madder  (the  coloring-matter  of  that  color),  a 
discovery  soon  followed  by  others,  the  useful  application  of 
bichromate  for  preparing  the  chrome-yellow  and  chrome- 
orange  in  calico-printing,  the  chrome-black  in  dyeiuij  wool, 
the  dischiirge  for  indigo-blue  and  the  oxidation  of  catechu, 
the  bleaching  of  palm-oil  and  other  fatty  matters,  the  prepara- 
tion of  chromic  oxid  for  green  pigments  for  painting  glass 
and  china,  and  for  the  preparation  of  vert  Guigiiel,  a  peculiar 
bydratcd  oxide  of  chromium,  obtained  by  heating  one  paj't  of 
bichromate  of  potash,  and  three  parts  of  crystallized  boric 
acid,  which  is  nsed  as  a  pigment  in  calico-printing." 

As  might  be  expected,  these  discoveries  gave  an  impulse  to 
the  preparation  of  the  different  chromates  of  potassa  which 
have  of  late  years  found  useful  applications  in  extracting 
colors  from  coal-tar,  and  also  in  the  manufacturing  of  chlorine 
gas. 

According  to  Mr.  J.  Persoz,  there  is,  America  excepted, 
but  five  manufactories  of  the  chromates  of  potassa;  viz.,  two 
in  Scotland,  one  in  France,  one  in  Norway,  and  one  in  Russia  ; 
and  the  total  production  of  these  works  in  18G9  amounted  to 
60,000  cwt. 

In  order  to  test  for  the  strength  and  quality  of  bichromate 
of  potash  :  "Take  one  hundred  and  sixty-five  grains  of  pure 
nitrate  of  lead,  and  dissolve  it  in  two  hundred  measures  of 
water.     This  should  precipitate  seventy-four  grains  of  bichro- 


414  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

mate  (if  it  is  pure),  so  that  all  that  is  required,  is  to  dissolve 
the  chrome,  then  add  the  nitrate  of  lead  as  long  as  any  pre- 
cipitation takes  place.  If  all  the  lead  is  required,  the  chrome 
is  good  ;  but  every  three  graduations  of  the  lead  solution  left, 
after  precipitating  the  chrome,  will  represent  about  one  per 
cent,  of  impurity  of  the  bichromate." 

The  adulterations  in   chrome  for  the  last  few  years,  have 
been  muriate  of  soda  (salt). 


.  PROTOSULPHATE  OF  IRON,  OR  COPPERAS 

(  =  FeOS03+7HO). 
This  salt  is  met  with  in  the  trade  in  the  form  of  green- 
colored  crystals,  having  an  inky,  astringent  taste,  and  by 
exposure  to  a  dry  atmosphere,  the  crystals  will  elttoresce, 
and  be  converted  into  a  white  powder.  Dissolve  this  pow- 
der in  water  again,  and  we  find  it  to  contain  both  the  per- 
sulphate and  protosulphate  of  iron,  or  the  basic  sulphate  of 
peroxide  of  iron.  One  hundred  parts  of  the  chemically-pure 
copperas  consists  of  — 

Sulphuric  acid,  ....  28.77 
Protoxide  of  iron,  ....  25.89 
Water, 45.34=100 

This  substance  is  manufactured  in  various  ways,  and  from 
various  substances.  The  original  method  was  by  lixiviation 
of  iron  pjrites,  or  iron  containing  minerals.  These  minerals 
are  collected  and  placed  in  layers  on  inclined  platforms  ;  then 
water  is  sprinkled  upon  these  layers  from  time  to  time.  As 
this  water  drains  through  the  pyrites,  they  become  soluble, 
and  part  of  their  substance  is  carried  off,  and  is  slowly  oxid- 
ized by  atmospheric  agency.  The  water,  after  draining 
through,  is  received  into  stone  cisterns,  and  taken  from  the 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  415 

cisterns  to  the  evapoviiting-pans,  Avhere  it  crystallizes.  Cop- 
peras is  also  obtained  as  a  by-product  of  alum-nianufacture, 
by  evaporating  the  mother-liquor  containing  iron.  The  bron'ii 
sulphuric  acid,  or  chamber-acid,  as  it  is  called,  also  such 
waste  sulphuric-acid  li(]nids  as  are  obtained  in  the  oil  and 
petroleum  refining,  ai-e  sometimes  used  as  solvents  for  scrap- 
iron  to  prepare  copperas.  It  can  be  made  by  boiling  the  tine 
pulverized  puddling,  and  iron-refining  slags  with  sulphuric 
acid. 

The  English  copperas  is  made  from  iron  pyrites,  as  already 
described.  These  iron  pyrites  are  a  bisulphuret  of  iron 
(FeS.j),  and  contain,  in  one  hundred  parts,  forty-eight  parts* 
of  iron,  and  fifty-two  parts  of  sulphur.  These  pyrites,  when 
obtained  from  the  older  geological  formations,  are  subject  to 
spontaneous  decomposition  when  exposed  to  moisture  and  the 
atmosphere,  and  the  sulphur  which  they  contain  combines 
with  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere,  and  thus  forms  sulphur- 
ous acid  (SOo),  and  will  again,  in  the  presence  of  oxide  of 
iron  and  water,  take  up  more  oxygen,  and  then  it  is  sulphuric 
acid,  which,  in  turn,  coml)ines  with  the  iron,  forming,  by 
crystallizing  it,  copperas. 

The  pyrites  are  collected  and  made  into  large  heaps,  and 
set  on  tire,  in  the  same  manner  as  they  do  with  the  alum- 
shale  in  the  process  of  preparing  it  for  the  manufacture  of 
alum.  This  roasting-process  creates  a  quick  oxidation  of  the 
sulphur,  and  the  result  is  the  formation  of  the  sulphate  of 
iron.  This  sulphate  is  then  dissolved,  by  allowing  water  to 
pass  through  these  heaps,  and  collected  into  tanks.  In  this 
solution  there  is  always  an  excess  of  sulphur  over  the  iron. 
There  is  also  in  it  a  per-salt  of  iron,  with  an  excess  of  acid, 
and,  very  often,  small  quantities  of  copper,  which  would  be 
very  deleterious  to  the  copperas.  In  order  to  get  rid  of  the 
copper,  a  quantity  of  old  rusty  iron  is  thrown  into  the  solu- 
tion, wliich  will  precipitate  tlie  copper,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
take  up  the  excess  of  acid  from  the  solution.  It  also  reduces 
all  the  persulphate  that  it  contains  into  the  state  of  protosul- 


416  THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 

phate.  After  this  reaction  has  taken  place,  the  solution  is 
then  evaporated  and  crystallized.  But  this  adding  old  iron 
to  obtain  the  changes  above  described  not  being  adapted  in 
all  cases,  is  the  reason  we  have  the  different  varieties  of  cop- 
peras in  the  trade.  The  quality  of  the  copperas  is  judged  of, 
by  most  dyers,  by  its  color,  and  the  poorest  is  sometimes 
made  to  appear  better  than  it  really  is  by  sprinkling  upon  it 
some  lime,  or  a  solution  of  salt,  in  order  to  give  it  a  dark 
tint,  which  deceives  the  eye,  but  does  not  improve  its  quality 
in  the  least. 

There  is  in  the  market  a  number  of  brands  of  copperas,  — 
such  as  the  English,  Vermont,  Keystone,  and  the  Pillar  cop- 
peras. The  English  is  superior  to  the  Vermont  or  Keystone, 
but  I  do  not  think  it  superior  to  the  Pillar,  as  the  Pillar  is  the 
very  best  that  I  have  used,  and,  according  to  analysis,  it  is 
nearer  to  the  chemically  pure,  in  regard  to  the  amount  of  sul- 
phate of  iron  it  contains,  than  either  of  the  others. 

M.  Bansdorff  states  that  there  are  three  kinds,  or  varieties, 
of  copperas,  and  classes  them  as  the  greenish-blue,  dirty- 
green,  and  emerald-green, — the  first  being  formed  from  an 
acid  solution,  free  from  the  peroxide  of  iron;  the  second, 
from  a  neutral  solution  ;  and  the  last,  from  a  solution  largely 
impregnated  with  the  peroxide. 

M.  Dumas  states  that  these  variations  are  the  formation  of 
a  double  salt  of  the  proto  and  per  sulphate  during  the  decom- 
position of  the  pyrites.  Copperas  that  is  crystallized  from  a 
neutral  solution,  when  kept  for  any  length  of  time,  will  have 
a  rusty  appearance,  which  is  caused  by  the  absorption  of 
oxygen.  In  the  trade,  there  are  two  varieties  mostly  met 
with.  They  are  the  dark  colored,  and  the  very  light  green. 
The  dark  colored  is  better  adapted  for  saddening  purposes 
than  the  light  green,  but  the  latter  is  the  best  to  use  in  the 
copperas-vat ;  the  Keystone  copperas  being  a  light  green,  and 
containing  a  large  amount  of  water  of  crystallization,  would 
be  the  best  for  the  copperas-vat. 

The  difference  between  the  keystone,  or  light-green,  watery- 


THE    AMEllICAN   DYER.  417 

colored  copperas,  and  the  dark-green  colored,  hns  been  found 
to  be  .abont  fourteen  per  cent,  in  favor  of  the  dark-cohjred  ; 
or  one  hundred  pounds  of  the  dark-colored  is  equal  to  one 
hundred  and  fourteen  pounds  of  the  light  green.  As  this 
light-green  watery  copperas,  according  to  Bransdorff,  is  crys- 
tallized from  an  acid  solution,  we  may  infer  that  the  combin- 
ing of  the  extra  proportion  which  it  contains  with  the  crystals, 
is  owing  to  a  portion  of  the  mother-liquor  being  mechanically 
combined  with  the  crystals,  but  it  does  not  form  an  essential 
ino-redient  in  the  compositi(m  of  the  copperas  ;  and  should  the 
copperas  be  crystallized  from  the  sulphate  of  alumina  con- 
tained in  the  solution,  we  find  that  the  excess  of  acid  will  be 
more  abundant.  The  presence  of  alumina  in  copperas  can  be 
detected  by  dissolving  some  of  the  copperas  in  water,  and 
then  boiling  it.  Then  add  a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid  to  it,  so  as 
to  deoxidize  the  iron  contained  in  the  solution  ;  and  if  it  con- 
tains alumina,  the  soluti(m  will  be  of  a  clear  amber-color. 
Then  to  the  solution  add  caustic  potash  to  excess,  or  until  the 
solution  becomes  very  alkaline.  Now  boil  it  for  thirty  min- 
utes, and  filter  it,  and  all  the  peroxide  of  iron  will  be  found 
upon  the  filter,  and  the  solution  will  contain  all  the  alumina. 
Now  add  a  little  ammonia  to  the  filtered  solution.  The  result 
will  be  a  flocculent  white  precipitation,  if  the  copperas  contains 
any  alumina.  If  you  should  add  aqua  ammonia  to  the  per- 
oxide of  iron  which  was  left  upon  the  filter,  the  ammonia, 
after  passing  through  the  filter,  will  be  a  blue  color  if  the  iron 
on  the  filter  contained  any  copper.  But  if  you  wish  to  make 
a  test  for  copper,  it  is  best  to  do  it  separately,  which  is  done 
thus  :  Dissolve  the  copperas  as  described  above  ;  then  add  a 
little  nitric  acid  to  peroxidize  it.  Add  ammonia  instead  of 
caustic  potash.  Then  filter,  and  the  solution  will  be  blue  if 
there  is  the  slightest  trace  of  copper  in  the  copperas.  Cop- 
peras can  be  made'  by  any  dyer  very  easily,  by  diluting  sul- 
phuric acid  with  four  parts  of  water,  and  adding  iron  scraps  to  , 
it.  The  iron  will  soon  dissolve,  causing  a  rapid  evolution  of 
hydrogen  gas.  After  the  acid  has  eaten  up  all  the  iron  it 
53 


418 


THE    AJIERICAX   DTEK. 


can,  then  the  solution  must  be  evaporated  by  heat  until  you 
perceive  a  thin  skin  upon  the  solution.  Then  set  it  away  in 
some  cool  place,  and  in  a  short  time  there  will  be  formed  a 
quantit}'  of  green-colored  crystals  of  sulphate  of  iron,  and  they 
contain  about  seven  proportions  of  water ;  or,  in  other  words, 
these  crystals  contain,  in  100  parts, — 


Sulphate  of  iron. 
Water, 


FeS04     54.05, 
H2O         45.05  =  100. 


When  the  crystals  are  heated  to  242°  F.,  they  will  part 
with  all  this  water,  with  the  exception  of  about  ten  per  cent., 
and  will  lose  their  green  color,  and  become  white,  as  stated 
previously. 

Copperas  is  very  soluble  in  water.  Cold  water  dissolves 
one-half  its  own  weight ;  and  one  gallon  of  boiling  water  will 
dissolve  thirty  pounds  of  it. 

The  following  is  the  composition  of  copperas  in  100  parts  : — 


Engllsb. 

^                        Chemical      '        „.„ 
Vermont.               Pure.                 Pillar. 

Sulphuric  acid,   . 
Protoxide  of  iron, 
Peroxide  of  iron, 
Water,         .... 
Oxide  of  copper, 

23.29 

21.83 

1.18 

53.04 

30.54 
23.49 

1.28 
43.18 

1.51 

28.77 
25.89 

45.34 

29.14 

25.74 

1.07 

44.05 

A  trace. 

100. 

100. 

100. 

100. 

Copperas  is  employed  for  other  purposes  besides  use  as  a 
mordant  for  dyeing  and  calico-printing.  It  is  used  as  a  disin- 
fectant, for  making  ink,  for  the  deoxidation  of  indigo  (in  the 
copperas-vat),  in  gas-purifying,  in  the  precipitation  of  gold 
from  its  solutions,  in  the  preparation  of  Prussian  blue,  in  the 
manufacture  of  fuming  (Nordhausen)  sulphuric  acid  ;  also  for 
a  host  of  other  purposes. 

Copperas  consists  of  one  equivalent  of  sulphuric  acid  =  40, 


THE   AMEEICAX   DYER.  419 

one  of  protoxide  =  36,  and  seven  of  water  =  63,  makino-  its 
prime  equivalent  139,  and  its  formula  is  FeCSOg-j-THO,  but 
often  written  thus,  SOgFe,  or  FeSOg. 


SODA,   OR   SODIUM   CARBONATE    (Na^COg). 

Its  composition  in  100  parts  is  58|  parts  soda,  41^  parts  of 
carbonic  acid;  otherwise,  58.5  soda,  41.5  carbonic  acid. 

Soda  was  not  distinguished  from  potash  until  near  the  mid- 
dle of  the  eighteenth  century,  when  their  different  characters 
were  recognized. 

Before  that  period  the  potash  was  called  the  vegetable  and 
the  soda  the  mineral  alkali. 

In  1807,  Sir  H.  Davy  demonstrated  that  soda,  as  well  as 
potash,  was  the  oxide  of  a  metal  which  he  named  sodium. 
The  soda  commonly  used  is  derived  from  the  three  followinf^ 
named  sources ; 

First.     Natural  or  native  soda. 

Second.     From  plants. 

Third.     Chemical  productions. 

We  will  notice  only  the  second  and  third  sources  from 
which  we  obtain  soda. 

Soda  from  Plants. 

It  has  been  found  that  the  ash  from  plants,  especially 
such  as  are  grown  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  ocean, 
contains  a  large  amount  of  carbonate  of  potash ;  also,  that 
plants  which  grow  near  the  seashore,  and  in  the  localities 
known  as  salt  steppes,  yield  an  ash  that  contains  more  or 
less  soda,  in  the  living  plant  combined  with  sulphuric  and 
organic  acids,  and  which,  under  the  influence  of  the  carbonate 
of  lime  (CaCog),  is,  during  the  ignition  or  burning  of  the 
plant,  converted  into  carbonate  of  soda. 

The  plants  from  which  soda  is  prepared  are  called  salsola, 


420  THE    AMERICAN    DYEE. 

ati'tjylex,  salicornia  and  keJj).  The  process  of  obtaining  soda 
from  these  phints  consists  simply  in  burning  them  in  holes  or 
pits  made  in  the  sand  near  the  seashore.  The  heat  of  the  burn- 
ing plant  becomes  so  intense  that  it  causes  the  ashes  to  flux, 
so  that  after  it  becomes  cold  the  substance  will  form  into  a 
hard,  slag-like  mass,  which  is  termed  crude  soda  or  soda-ash, 
and  the  amount  of  carbonate  of  soda  that  it  contains  will  vary 
from  live  to  twenty-five  per  cent. 

From  these  ditierent  plants,  and  the  methods  adopted  to 
obtain  the  soda,  we  find  the  followinij  kinds: 

First.  The  barilla  from  Alicante,  Malaga,  the  Canary 
Islands,  and  the  barilla  soda  from  the  Spanish  coast,  con- 
tains, on  the  average,  from  twenty  to  thirty  per  cent,  of 
carbonate  of  soda. 

Second.  Salicor,  or  soda  from  Narbonne,  which  is  obtained 
by  burning  the  plant  saJicornia,  this  plant  being  cultivated 
purposely,  and  gathered  when  the  seed  has  become  rii)e. 
The  soda  from  this  plant  contains  about  fourteen  per  cent,  of 
carbonate  of  soda. 

Soda   Prepared   by   Chemical   Processes. 

One  method  of  obtaining  soda  by  chemical  means  is  as 
follows :  A  furnace  or  mutfle  is  well  heated,  then  eight  or 
ten  hundred  pounds  of  salt  is  thrown  in,  to  which  is  added 
oil  of  vitriol :  the  quantity  of  acid  is  regulated  so  as  to  leave 
from  one  to  three  per  cent,  undecomposed,  in  order  to  obtain 
a  perfectly  neutral  sulphate.  One  hundred  parts  of  salt  re- 
quire for  their  complete  decomposition  ninety-five  parts  of 
acid,  at  60°  Baume=rl.7  specific  gravity,  or  ope  hundred  and 
four  parts  of  an  acid,  at  55°  Baume=:l.G2  specific  gravity. 

This  mixture  of  salt  and  acid  is  occasionally  well  stirred, 
and  after  the  lapse  of  two  or  three  hours  it  will  have  become 
suificicMitly  dry  to  rake  over  into  an  oven  made  of  brick-work, 
attached  to  the  furnace  ;  this  oven  is  kept  at  a  bright  heat,  in 
order  to  expel  the  muriatic  acid  gas  ;  it  is  then  called  sulphate 
of  soda   (NaO,SO3-hl011O).      The  sulphate  of  soda  is  then 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  421 

recluced  to  powder,  and  then  mixed  with  air  equal  weight  of 
chalk,  and  half  its  weight  of  coal,  which  is  well  ground  and 
sifted.  This  mixture  is  again  put  into  a  hot  reverheratory 
furnace,  and  frequently  stirred,  until  it  is  uniformly  heated  ; 
in  an  hour  it  will  fuse;  it  is. then  well  stirred  for  a  few 
minutes,  and  then  drawn  out  into  a  cast-iron  trough,  where 
it  cools  and  solidifies ;  this  is  called  ball  soda,  and  contains 
about  thirty  per  cent  of  alkali.  This  ball  soda  is  usually  ex- 
posed to  the  action  of  the  air  for  at  least  five  days,  so  that  it 
may  become  more  porous,  and  hence  be  more  readily  acted 
upon  by  the  water  used  to  separate  it  from  the  insoluble  mat- 
ters, which  is  accomplished  by  breaking  up  the  cake,  and 
putting  it  into  vats,  and  covering  it  with  tepid  water. 

In  about  four  hours  the  liquor  is  drawn  oflf  at  the  bottom, 
then  more  Avarm  water  is  added  and  drawn  off  again,  and  so 
on  for  five  or  six  times,  which  extracts  all  the  soluble  matters 
from  the  cake.  These  wash  liquors  are  all  put  together,  and 
boiled  down  to  a  dryness  that  forms  a  salt  of  carbonate  of  soda 
(NaOjCOg),  which  contains  a  little  caustic  soda  and  sulphuret 
of  sodium.  To  get  rid  of  the  sulphuret,  they  mix  the  salt 
with  about  one-third  of  its  bulk  of  sawdust,  then  expose  it 
to  a  low  heat  in  another  furnace  for  a  few  hours,  which  con- 
verts the  caustic  soda  into  a  carbonate  that  carries  off  the 
sulphur.  The  product  of  this  contains  nearly  fifty  per  cent, 
of  alkali,  and  produces  the  best 

Soda  Ash. 
A  plan  for  the  direct  conversion  of  common  salt  into 
soda,  and  then  again  into  soda-ash,  has  lou":  been  sought 
for,  but  never  carried  into  practice  successfully.  It  was 
found  that  if  a  concentrated  solution  of  bicarbonate  of  ammo- 
nia is  mixed  with  strong  brine,  or  if  we  pulverize  the  bicar- 
bonate of  ammonia  and  stir  it  through  a  concentrated  solu- 
tion of  common  salt,  and  leave  this  mixture  to  stand,  the 
result  will  be,  after  some  hours,  the  bicarbonate  of  soda  will 


422  THE   A^IERICAlSr  DYER. 

be  deposited  in  a  crystalline  state,  and  the  supernatant  liquor 
will  be  a  solution  of  sal-ammoniac  (NH3HCI). 

The  first  operation  consists  in  the  action  of  ammonia  and 
carbonic  acid  upon  the  concentrated  salt  solution  (or  brine). 
To  one  hundred  parts  of  water,  ihirty-two  parts  of  common 
salt,  nine  parts  of  ammonia,  and  carbonic  acid  in  excess  are 
added.  The  next  step  is  the  separation  of  the  bicarbonate  of 
soda,  which  is  brought  about  by  a  centrifugal  machine.  The 
third  stage  is  the  calcination  of  the  bicarbonate  of  soda,  in 
cylindrical  iron  vessels,  and  the  carbonic  acid  gas  which  is 
given  is  collected. 

The  fourth  and  fifth  operations  are  for  the  recovery  of  the 
carbonic  acid  and  ammonia  from  the  liquid  that  drained  from 
the  bicarbonate  of  soda  while  it  was  in  the  centrifugal  ma- 
chine. These  drainings  are  heated  in  a  boiler.  The  efi^ect 
will  be  the  escape  of  the  ammonia  and  carbonic  gas,  which  is 
conducted  to  a  cylinder  filled  with  coke,  through  which  a  cold 
aqueous  solution  of  carbonate  of  ammonia  trickles,  which 
causes  the  condensation  of  the  ammonia,  the  carbonic  acid 
escaping  into  a  gas-holder. 

The  above  plan  has,  however,  not  been  successfully  carried 
into  practice. 

Owing  to  the  various  circumstances  and  methods  of  manu- 
facturing soda-ash,  its  percentage  we  find  very  uncertain  ;  it 
will  vary  from  forty  to  fifty  per  cent.  It  is  generally  priced 
according  to  the  percentage  of  alkali  that  it  contains.  We 
might  give  a  method  for  ascertaining  the  percentage,  but  as 
it  requires  a  great  deal  of  time  and  trouble,  and  it  not  being 
very  essential  to  woolen-dyers,  for  the  purposes  for  which 
they  use  it,  it  is  of  no  consequence  what  per  cent,  of  alkali 
it  contains. 

The  methods  for  testing  soda-ash  might  be  of  some  benefit 
to  dealers  in  it,  but  it  is  doubtful,  to  my  mind,  if  they  had  the 
plan  of  testing  it,  whether  they  would  ever  take  the  trouble 
to  perform  the  operation. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  423 

Soda-ash  is  soluble  in  twice  its  weight  of  cold  water,  and 
an  equal  weight  of  boiling  water. 
Its  composition  is — 

Carbonic  acid,     .....        15.3 

Soda, 22.0 

Water, 62.7  =  100 

In  a  dry  atmosphere  its  water  of  crystallization  evaporates, 
and  the  salt  falls  into  a  powder ;  one  pound  of  this  powder  is 
equal  in  strength  to  two  pounds  of  the  crystals.  If  it  is 
boiled  with  quicklime  it  will  be  deprived  of  its  carbonic  acid  ; 
then  evaporate  it  to  dryness,  and  it  wHl  be  a  pure  soda ;  and 
its  combining  proportion  with  an  acid  is  four. 

A  solution  of  soda-ash,  brought  to  the  boiling  point,  will 
attain  266°  Fahr. 

Carbonate  of  Soda  (NajCOg). 
This  salt  is  prepared  by  first  dissolving  soda-ash  in  water ; 
the  clear  solution  is  then  boiled  until  a  pellicle  appears  upon 
the  surface.  The  liquor  is  then  run  into  shallow  cast-iron 
troughs  and  allowed  to  cool,  and  as  it  cools  it  crystallizes. 
It  is  allowed  to  stand  for  five  or  six  days  ;  the  mother-liquor 
is  then  drawn  off,  the  crystals  are  drained,  and  then  it  is 
broken  up  and  sent  to  the  market.  The  mother-liquor  is 
utilized  by  evaporating  it  to  dryness,  which  makes  a  very 
impure  soda-ash,  containing  not  over  thirty  per  cent,  of 
alkali.     This  soda-ash  is  sold  to  soap-manufacturers. 

Crystallized  Carbonate  of  Soda  (NajCOg+lOHO). 

This  salt  is  carbonate  of  soda,  with  about  six  per  cent,  of 
water,  but  it  is  a  very  pure  salt.  When  these  crystals  are 
exposed  to  a  dry  atmosphere,  they  lose  a  portion  of  their 
water,  and  they  will  have  a  chalky-white  appearance  ;  and  if 
exposed  to  heat,  they  will  melt  in  their  water  of  crystalliza- 
tion. 


424  THE    AMERICAN   DYEK. 

The  composition  of  this  soda  is  us  follows,  in  one  huudred 
parts  by  weight  : 

Water,      .         ...         .         .         .62.76 

Carbonic  acid,  .         .         .  .         .       15.43 

Caustic  soda, 21.81  =  100 

"We  see  by  the  above  that  more  than  three-fifths  of  their 
■weight  is  water. 

The  carbonate  of  soda  sold  for  domestic  uses  is  crystallized 
soda,  deprived  of  its  water  of  crystallization. 

Caustic  Soda,  or  Sodium  Hydroxide  (XaO,HO). 
This  substance  is  met  with  in  the  market  as  a  highly  con- 
centrated solution,  or,  more  frequently,  as  a  solid  mass,  being 
fused  hydrate  of  soda,  consisting,  in  one  hundred  parts, 
seventy-seven  and  one-half  parts  of  soda  and  twenty-two  and 
one-half  parts  of  water.  For  a  number  of  years  a  moder- 
ately strong  solution  of  caustic  soda  was  made  by  using  caus- 
tic lime,  with  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda.  Dale  was  the 
first  one  to  use  this  solution,  instead  of  water,  in  hi.s  boilers, 
and  l)y  this  plan  concentrated  the  lye  to  a  specific  gravity  of 
1.24  to  1.25  ;  after  which  he  evaporated  the  ]ye  to  a  specific 
gravity  of  1.9.  At  this  point  it  solidities  on  cooling.  At 
the  present  time  caustic  soda  is  not  prepared  with  lime,  but 
is  prepared  by  simply  increasing  the  quantity  of  small  coal 
to  the  mixture  of  sulphate  and  chalk,  the  crude  soda  being  at 
once  lixiviated  with  water  at  50^  Fahr.  After  the  liquor  has 
cleared,  it  is  rapidly  concentrated  to  1.5  specific  gravity,  at 
■which  point  the  carbonate,  sulphate,  and  chloride  of  sodium 
are  deposited  ;  the  liquor  now  assumes  a  brick-red  color,  due 
to  the  peculiar  compound  of  double  sulphuret  of  sodium  and 
sulphuret  of  iron.  The  lye  is  next  strongl}'  heated  in  large 
cast-iron  cauldrons  ;  there  is  then  added  twenty-five  pounds 
of  Chili  saltpetre  for  every  hundred  pounds  of  caustic  soda 
required.     By  this  operation  the  nitrate  of  soda   reacts   upon 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 


425 


the  sulpluiret  of  sodium  and  the  cyanide  of  sodium  present, 
which  causes  an  evohition  of  ammouia  and  nitfo'»-en.  In 
England  caustic  soda  of  a  very  pure  character  is  prepared 
from  sodium,  by  carefully  oxidizing  the  metal  (sodium)  with 
pure  water  in  bright  iron  or  silver  vessels. 

According  to  Dr.  Dalton's  researches,  a  caustic  soda  of  the 
following  specific  gravities  contains  percentages  of  caustic- 
soda  (NaHO)  :  — 


Speciflc  Gravity. 

Caustic  Soda  (NaHO). 

Specific  Gravity. 

Caustio  Soda  (NaHO). 

2.00 

77.8 

1.40 

29.0 

1.85 

63.G 

1.36 

26.0 

1.72 

53.0 

1.32 

23.0 

1.63 

46.6 

1.29 

19.0 

1.56 

41.2 

1.23 

16.0 

1.50 

86.8 

1.18 

13.0 

1.47 

3-J.O 

1.12 

9.0 

1.44 

31.0 

1.06 

4.7 

Caustic  soda  is  used  for  soap-making,  paraffine,  and  petro- 
leum refining,  and  for  the  preparation  of  silicate  of  soda  ;  also 
for  cotton-dyeing  and  calico-printing. 

Sulphate  of  Soda  (NaOSOg-f-lOHO)  Crystallized. 

Sulphate  of  soda,  or  Glauber's  salt,  consists,  in  one  hun- 
dred parts,  of  19.3  of  soda,  24.7  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  56  of 
water.  The  formula  4s,  NaOSO34-10HO.  The  formula  for 
the  anhydrous  sulphate  of  soda  is,  NaaSO^,  and  consists,  in 
one  hundred  parts:  soda,  43.6;  sulphuric  acid,  56.4.  It  is 
prepared  by  decomposing  common  salt  (XaCl)  with  sulphuric 
acid  (H2SO4)  ;  if  prepared  thus  it  contains  about  one-third 
its  weight  of  salt. 

There  are  a  number  of  methods  used  to  prepare  this  sub- 
stance. 

First.  The  double  decomposition  of  common  salt  and  sul- 
phate of  magnesia  from  the  mother-liquor  of  sea-water,  or  of 

54 


426  THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 

salines,  when  exposed  to  a  low  temperature,  either  natural  in 
water  or  artificially  by  the  assistance  of  Carre's  ice-making 
machine. 

Second.  Langmaid's  process  of  roasting  sulphuret  of  iron 
or  copper  with  common  salt. 

Third.  Calcination  of  kieserite  or  magnesian  sulphate  with 
common  salt. 

Fourth.  .  As  a  by-product  of  paraffine  and  petroleum  refin- 
ing. 

The  sulphate  of  soda  of  the  alkali  works  contains,  on  an 
average,  ninety  to  ninety-five  per  cent,  of  the  pure  salt,  the 
remainder  being  chiefly  salt. 

Soda  saturated  with  sulphuric  acid  makes  the  best  sulphate 
of  soda,  and  crystallizes  very  rapidly  and  easily.  This  salt  is 
used  more  extensively  in  the  woolen  dye-house  than  formerly. 

Sulphate  of  soda  is  a  colorless  salt,  possessing  a  cooling, 
nauseous,  bitter  taste,  and  crystallizes  easily  and  rapidly  in 
six-sided  prisms.  When  it  has  been  made  but  a  short  time 
it  is  very  transparent,  but  by  exposure  to  the  atmosphere  it 
eflloresces,  and  the  crystals  become  covered  with  an  opaque 
white  powder ;  by  long  exposure  it  undergoes  a  complete 
efflorescence  and  falls  into  powder,  with  the  loss  of  more  than 
half  its  weight.  Sulphate  of  soda  is  soluble  in  three  times  its 
weight  of  cold  water,  and  in  an  equal  weight  of  boiling  water, 
but  it  is  insoluble  in  alcohol.  A  supersaturated  solution  of 
it  will  remain  without  crystallizing  at  ordinary  temperatures, 
althouorh  containing  several  times  the  'weight  of  the  salt  that 
would  be  dissolved  at  the  same  degree  of  heat  {Gay  Lussac). 
But  we  find  that  the  solution  will  instantly  form  into  a  crys- 
talline mass  if  we  add  to  it  a  small  piece  of  the  crystals  of 
the  same  salt,  or  other  substance  that  have  been  exposed  to 
the  air,  or  upon  abruptly  placing  it  in  contact  with  the  air. 
M.  D.  Gernez  appears  to  have  proved  that  in  each  instance 
the  cause  of  crystallization  is  the  same  ;  namely,  sulphate  of 
soda  containing  ten  equivalents  of  water,  and,  where  the  crystal 
itself  is  not  added,  the  result  is  owing  to  sulphate  of  soda  ex- 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 


427 


isting  in  the  air.  When  sulphate  of  soda  is  subjected  to  heat 
it  dissolves  in  its  water  of  crystallization,  then  dries,  and 
afterwards,  by  the  application  of  a  red  heat,  it  melts  and 
loses  fifty-Hve  and  a  half  per  cent,  of  its  weight.  Occasion- 
ally it  contains  an  excess  of  acid  or  alkali,  which  may  be 
detected  by  litmus  or  tumeric  paper. 

Sulphate  of  soda  consists  of  one  equivalent  of  sulphuric 
acid,  one  of  soda,  and  ten  of  water;  its  prime  equivalent 
is  161.3.     Thus  — 

One  equivalent  of  sulphuric  acid  is  .  =40.0 
One  equivalent  of  soda  is  .  .  i=31.3 

Ten  equivalents  of  water  is      .  .  =90.0:=161.3 

With  respect  to  the  solubility  of  soda, — 

100  parts  of  water  at  176°  F.,  dissolve  78  parts  of  caustic  soda. 

"  "  158°  "        72  "  " 

♦♦  "  131°  "        64 

"  "  90°      .       "        46  "  " 

*t  "  62°  *'        41  '♦  " 


The  composition  of  crude  soda,  or  ball  soda  is, — 

Carbonate  of  soda  (NAoCOg),  .         .         .  45 

Sulphuret  of  calcium  (2CaCl2),  .         .  30 

Caustic  lime,  ......  10 

Carbonate  of  lime  (CaCOg),     ...  5 

Foreign  substances,  .         .         .         .  10  =  100 


Composition  of  soda  containing  caustic  soda  : 

Moisture, 
Insoluble  matter, 
Chloride  of  sodium  (NaCl), 
Sulphate  of  soda  (NajSO^), 
Carbonate  of  soda  (NajCog) 
Caustic  soda  (NaHO) 


2.10 
0.12 
4.32 
8.80 
82.47 
2.11  =  100.00 


428  THE    AMEKICAX   DYER. 

Composition  of  refined  soda  : 

Moisture, 1.00 

Insoluble  matters,     ....  - 

Chloride  of  sodium  (NaCl),       .  .  2.11 

Sulphate  of  soda  (NaoSO^),       .         .  1.50 

Carbonate  of  soda  (Xa^COa),     .  .  95.39  =  100.00 

One  hundred  parts  of  water  at  175^  Fahr.,  will  dissolve 
seventy-five  parts  of  soda. 

St ANN ATE    OF    SODA. 

This  salt  is  now  used  to  a  large  extent  in  cotton-dyeing  and 
calico-printing,  but  not  often  used  in  wool-dyeing  except  in 
some  cases  as  a  mordant  or  preparation  for  some  of  the  ani- 
line dyes,  when  they  are  required  to  resist  the  fulling  or 
scouring  process. 

Stannate  of  soda  is  prepared  in  various  ways  —  sometimes 
by  fusing  tin-ores  with  caustic  soda,  and  then  lixiviating  this 
melted  mass  with  water,  or  by  boiling  soda-lye  with  litharge 
and  metallic  tin,  the  result  being  the  formation  of  stannate  of 
soda  and  metallic  lead. 

Dr.  Hoficly  modifies  the  above  process  by  digesting  litharge 
with  soda-lye,  at  about  twenty-two  per  cent.,  in  a  metallic  ves- 
sel ;  he  thus  obtains  a  solution  of  plumbate  of  soda,  into  which 
he  puts  granulated  or  feathered  tin,  and  applies  heat. 

There  has  been  presented  a  salt  for  calico-printing,  under 
the  name  of  stanno-arsenite  of  soda.  It  consists  of  a  combina- 
tion of  arsenic,  soda,  and  protoxide  of  tin. 

Sometimes  a  stannite  of  soda  is  prepared  by  dissolving 
crj'stals  of  tin  in  water  containing  an  excess  of  caustic  soda, 
but  this  is  a  very  unstable  preparation,  and  is  neither  fit  for 
dyeing  or  calico-printing. 


ROLLINS  &  ASHLEY, 


MANUFACTURERS  OK 


AND 

BRADFORD  WOOL  OIL, 

79  BEDFORD  ST.,  ....  BOSTON. 


As  a  substitute  for  Tartar,  Ashley's  Tartarene  has  no  eqnal  in  the  market. 
It  has  been  thoroughly  tested,  and  is  now  in  successful  use  in  many  of  the 
most  iJrominent  mills  in  the  country.  It  is  fully  fifty  per  cent,  cheaper  than 
Tartar,  one  pound  to  one  pound  and  a  quarter  being  equal  to  two  pounds 
of  the  best  Half  Eef'd  or  Gray  Tartar,  and  from  four  to  eight  pounds  Red 
Tartar. 

C^  Order  a  Barrel.  If  it  does  not  prove  to  be  cheaper  than  Tartar, 
it  can  be  returned,  and  we  will  make  no  charge  for  what  you  use  in  giving 
it  a  trial. 


R.  Pv.  STREET   &   CO., 

.A.  C3-  E  IT  T  S, 


We  guarantee  our  Wool  Oil  equal  to  any  and  superior  to  many  of  the 
Wool  Oils  in  the  market.  Will  saponify  as  well  as  the  best  Lard  Oil ;  wash 
out  of  the  goods  easier,  and  leave  no  bad  odor. 

No   danger   of  spontaneous   combustion    where   this 
Oil    is    used. 


ffalple  Color  anJ  Cleiiiical  Works, 

HENRY     D.    DUPEE,    Proprietor, 

UANDFACTDRER  AND  IMPORTER  OF 

DYESTUFFS  &  CHEMICALS, 

JOHN    SHAW,   Jr.  DAVID    TURPIE. 


OFFICE  AND  STORE,  79  KILBY  ST.,  BOSTON. 


MEmTEM 


WALPOLB    EXCELSIOR    TANNIN. 

An  article  superior  to  Sumac  for  Aniline  Mordant  on  Cotton. 

WALPOLE    BLACK. 

WALPOLE    BLUE    MORDANT. 

WALPOLE    OXYDIZING    LIQUOR. 

A  aubstitute  for  Bichromate  Potash  for  Cutch  Browns,  &c. 
BLACK    BURLING    INKS. 

WALPOLE    INK. 

For  Correspondence,  Copying,  and  Book-keeping. 

VANADIUM. 

CHLORIDE,    OXIDE,    AND  ,  SULPHIDE, 

For  Aniline  Black. 

VANADITE    OP    AMMONIA, 
For  Catechu  Brown. 

ANILINES,    ALL    COLORS, 

At  Manufacturers'  prices. 
49~  Samples  and  full  information  on  application. 

WALPOLE    TARTAR    SUBSTITUTE. 

No.  1  for  Scarlet ;  No.  2  for  Cassimeres. 

WALPOLB    BARK    LIQUORS    AND    EXTRACTS. 
WALPOLE    AURANTINE    AND    FLA  VINE. 

WALPOLE    OXY-MURIATE    OF    ANTIMONY. 
WALPOLE    NITRATE    IRON. 

An  especially  pure  article. 

WALPOLE    EXTRACT    SUMAC. 

JACQUARD    BOARDS,    ALL    SIZES,    15c.   lb. 
PRESS    BOARDS,    ALL    SIZES. 

nr  We  are  the  pioneer   makers   of  Extract  of  Sumac. 


Part  Third. 


ALPHABETICAL  TABLE  OF  ELEMENTS, 
THEIE  SYMBOLS,  ETC. ; 

COAL-TAR    COLORS; 

HISTORY   OF    COAL-TAR    COLORS;    RESULT 
OF   IMPROVEMENTS,   ETC. 


432  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 


TABLE  OF  ELExMENTS,  ETC. 


HYDROMETERS. 

Baiime's  and  Twnddle's  hydrometers  are  universally  used 
in  print-works,  but  Twaddle's  is  the  standard  in  dye-houses, 
which  is  an  arbitrary  scale.  Baume's  hydrometer  is  com- 
monly used  l)y  apothecaries  ;  it  is  made  like  other  hydrometers 
as  regards  the  form.  The  one  used  for  alcohol  is  graduated 
by  loading  it,  until  it  sinks  to  the  bottom  of  the  stem  or 
straight  part  (which  is  marked  0,  zero),  in  a  solution  com- 
posed of  one  part  of  common  salt  and  nine  parts  of  water ;  it 
is  then  put  into^  water,  and  the  place  to  which  it  sinks  is 
marked  10°  of  the  scale,  and  from  this  the  rest  of  the  scale  is 
marked.  For  hydrometers  to  use  for  liquids  which  are 
heavier  than  water,  it  is  loaded  until  it  will  sink  in  distilled 
water  to  the  top  of  the  stem;  it  is  then  put  into  a  solution 
made  of  fifteen  parts  of  salt  and  eighty-five  parts  of  water, 
and  the  place  to  which  it  sinks  in  this  solution  is  marked  15°, 
and  the  scale  is  divided  off  from  that  each  wa}'.     ' 

There  are  hydrometers  made  especially  for  acids,  saline 
solutions,  and  for  syrups.  The  hydrometers  which  are  im- 
ported are  so  carelessly  made  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  find 
two  that  will  agree,  and  little  dependence  is  to  be  placed  on 
their  accuracy.  The  hydrometers  used  by  physicians  and 
apothecaries  are  manufactured  by  W.  H.  Pile,  Philadelphia, 
and  can  be  relied  upon  for  their  accuracy. 

The  following  table  will  show  the  corresponding  degrees  of 
Baume's  and  Twaddle's  hydrometers  sufficiently  accurate  for 
all  practical  purposes.  The  degrees  on  Baume's  scale  are 
very  empirical,  but  Twaddle's  hydrometers,  we  find,  are  based 
upon  the  liquid's  specific  gravity. 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 


433 


In  order  to  find  the  specific  gravity  of  a  fluid  by  Twaddle's 
hydrometer,  we  multiply  the  degrees  given  on  the  scale  by 
five  and  add  one  thousand,  then  point  off  three  figures  as 
decimals  ;  thus,  suppose  nitric  acid  to  indicate  64°,  which  is  the 
average  strength,  we  multiply  by  five  times  64  =  320 ;  now 
add  the  1,000  =  1,320,,  being  the  specific  gravity  of  nitric 
acid  at  64°  strength ;  and  to  find  the  degree  of  Twaddle  cor- 
responding to  any  specific  gravity,  we  divide  the  decimal  part 
of  the  specific  gravity  ;  thus  the  decimal  part  of  the  above 
specific  gravity  is  three  hundred  and  twenty,  and  five  in  three 
hundred  and  twenty  goes  sixty-four  times,  the  degrees  of 
Twaddle's  hydrometer. 


Degrees 

Degrees 

Specific 

Degrees 

Degrees 

Specific 

Twaddle. 

Baume. 

Gravity 

Twaddle. 

Baume. 

Gravity. 

1,   . 

1 

1.007 

50,          . 

'  29 

1.252 

3,  . 

9 

1.014 

52, 

30 

1.256 

4,  . 

3 

1.022 

55,- 

31 

1.260 

6,  . 

4 

1.029 

67, 

32 

1.264 

7,  . 

5 

1.036 

59, 

33 

1.268 

9,  . 

6 

1.044 

62, 

34 

1.309 

10,  . 

7 

1.052 

64, 

35 

1.321 

12,  . 

8 

1.060 

67, 

36 

1.334 

13,  . 

9 

1.067 

69, 

37 

1.346 

15,  . 

10 

1.075 

72, 

38 

1.359 

17,  . 

11 

1.083     • 

74, 

39 

1.372 

18,  . 

12 

1.091 

77, 

40 

1.384 

20,  . 

13 

1.100 

80, 

41 

1.398 

22,  . 

14 

1.108 

82, 

42 

1.412 

23,  . 

15 

1.116 

85, 

43 

1.426 

25,  . 

16 

1.125 

88, 

44 

1.440 

27,  . 

17 

1.134 

91, 

45 

1.454 

29,  . 

18 

1.143 

94, 

46 

1.470 

30,  . 

19 

1.152 

97, 

47 

1.485 

32,  . 

20 

1.161 

100, 

48 

1.501 

34,  . 

21 

1.171 

103, 

49 

1.515 

36,  . 

22 

1.180 

106, 

50 

1.532 

38,  . 

23 

1.190 

110, 

51 

1.549 

40,  . 

24 

1.199 

113, 

52 

1.566 

42,  . 

25 

1.210 

117, 

63 

1.583 

44,  . 

26 

1.221 

120, 

54 

1.601 

46,  . 

27 

1.231 

124, 

55 

1.618 

48,  . 

28 

1.242 

127, 

66 

1.637 

55 


434 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 


Degrees 

Degrees 

Specific 

Degrees 

Degrees 

Specific 

Twaddle. 

Banme. 

Gravity. 

Twaddle. 

Baume. 

Gravity. 

131, 

57 

1.656 

:  152, 

62 

1.758 

135, 

58 

1.676 

1  156, 

63 

1.779 

139, 

59 

1.695 

'  160, 

64 

1.801 

143, 

60 

1.714 

164,       . 

65 

1.820 

147, 

61 

1.736 

'  168, 

66 

1.840 

THERMOMETERS. 

Thermometers  are  plentiful  and  cheap,  but  we  will  not  give 
a  detailed  account  of  their  manufacture.  Suffice  it  to  say, 
that  a  good  thermometer  is  an  essential  instrument  in  the  dye- 
house,  as  very  often  in  cotton-dyeing,  and  frequently  in 
woolen-dyeing,  it  is  required  to  have  the  solutions  a  certain 
heat.  The  thermometers  used  in  this  country  are  generally 
those  of  Fahrenheit ;  in  Europe  tha  Centigrade,  and  some- 
times Reaumur's  thermometer,  are  used  to  a  great  extent. 
Thermometers  are  generally  indicated  by  abbreviations,  as : 
F.  or  Fahr.,  for  Fahrenheit's  scale;  R.  or  Reau.,  for  Reau- 
mur's ;  and  C.  or  Cent.,  for  Centigrade.  Fahrenheit  divided 
the  two  points,  from  the  boiling  of  water  to  its  freezing,  into 
180^  ;  he  called  the  freezing-point  the  thirty-second  degree, 
for  some  particular  reason  of  his  own  ;  he,  however,  gave  no 
reason  for  this  to  the  world  at  large  ;  so  by  the  taking  32°, 
the  point  where  water  freezes,  and  adding  the  180°  interven- 
ing between  that  and  his  boiling-point,  we  have  the  212°, 
which  is  marked  upon  his  scale  as  the  boiling-point  of  water. 
Reaumur  has  divided  his  into  80°  between  the  two  points, 
from  freezing  to  the  boiling  of  water.  The  centigrade  is 
divided  into  100°  between  the  two  points,  from  the  freezing 
to  the  boiling  point,  the  freezing-point  being  marked  0,  the 
boiling-point  100°.  In  studying  or  reading  works  upon  dye- 
ing, where  temperature  is  referred  to  in  the  processes  or 
recipes,  attention  should  be  paid  to  what  scale  of  thermometer 


THE    AI^IERICAl^^   DYER. 


435 


is  referred  to.  The  degrees  of  one  can  be  converted  into  the 
other,  by  a  very  simple  rule.  For  instance,  we  wish  to  con- 
vert the  centigrade  scale  to  the  Fahrenheit.  Suppose  a  liquid 
indicates  80°  centigrade,  we  multiply  80  by  9=720,  this 
divided  by  5=124;  now  we  add  32,  making  it  156  degrees 
Fahrenheit.  To  convert  Reaumur  to  Fahrenheit,  multiply  the 
degree  given  by  9,  divide  by  4,  and  add  32,  as  in  the  above 
example. 

Any  degree  of  the  centigrade  scale,  multiplied  by  4,  and 
divided  by  5,  will  give  the  corresponding  degree  of  Reau- 
mur, and  conversely  ;  and  the  degree  of  Reaumur,  multiplied 
by  5,  and  divided  by  4,  will  give  the  corresponding  degree  of 
centigrade. 

The  following  table  will  show  the  corresponding  degree  of 
Fahrenheit  to  degrees  on  the  centigrade  scale,  so  that  the 
comparative  value  of  the  two  scales,  will  be  easy  for  the  dyer 
to  ascertain  and  guide  him  in  the  use  of  either  one  of  them  : — 


Cent 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

0,         .        . 

32 

21,        .         . 

69.8 

42, 

107.6 

1, 

33.8 

22, 

71.6 

43, 

109.4 

2, 

35.6 

23, 

73.4 

44, 

111.2 

3, 

37.4 

24, 

75.2 

45, 

113 

4, 

39.2 

25, 

77 

46, 

114.8 

6, 

41 

26, 

78.8 

47, 

116.6 

6, 

42.8 

27, 

80.6 

48, 

118.4 

7, 

44.6 

28, 

82.4 

49, 

120.2 

8, 

46.4 

29, 

84.2 

50, 

122 

9, 

48.2 

30, 

86 

51, 

123.8 

10, 

50 

31, 

87.8 

52, 

125.6 

11, 

51.8 

32, 

89.6 

53, 

127.4 

12, 

53.6 

33, 

91.4 

54, 

129.2 

13, 

55.4 

34, 

93.2 

55, 

131 

14, 

57.2 

35, 

95 

56, 

132.8 

15, 

59 

36, 

96.8 

57, 

131.6 

16, 

60.8 

37, 

98.6 

58, 

136.4 

1", 

62.6 

38, 

100.4 

59, 

138.2 

18, 

64.4 

39, 

102.2 

60,        . 

140 

19, 

66.2 

40, 

104 

61,        . 

141.8 

20, 

68 

41, 

A. 

105.8 

62,        . 

143.6 

436 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 


Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent 

Fahr. 

63, 

U5.4 

76,          . 

168.8 

89,       .        . 

192.2 

64, 

147.2 

77,        . 

170.6 

90,       . 

194 

Co, 

149 

78,        .         . 

172.4 

91,       .         . 

195.8 

66, 

150.8 

79, 

174.2 

92,       . 

197.6 

67, 

152.6  1 

80, 

176 

93,       . 

199.4 

68, 

154.4  j 

81, 

177.8 

94,       .        . 

201.2 

69, 

156.2 

82, 

179.6 

95,       . 

203 

70, 

158      1 

83, 

181.4 

96, 

204.8 

71, 

159.8 

84,        . 

183.2 

97,       . 

206.6 

72, 

161.6 

85, 

185 

98, 

208.4 

73, 

163.4 

86,        . 

186.8 

99,       . 

210.2 

74, 

165.2 

87,       .         . 

188.6 

100,       . 

212 

75, 

167 

88, 

19U.4 

ALPHABETICAL    TABLE    OF    ELEMENTS  —  THEIR 
SYMBOLS  AND  PRIME  EQUIVALENTS. 

This  table  includes  all  of  the  elements,  although  many  of 
them  are  not  used  in  the  art  of  dyeing;  excluding  aridium 
and  donarium,  which  have  not  yet  maintained  their  claim  as 
being  distinct  metals. 

By  modern  chemists  the  elements  are  designated  by  letters, 
which  are  called  symhols.  The  initial  letter  of  the  name  is 
the  symbol,  whenever  it  is  distinctive ;  but  when  several 
elements  have  names  beginning  with  the  same  letter,  the  plan 
adopted  is  to  represent  one  of  them  by  the  initial  letter,  and 
the  rest  by  the  initial  letter  with  some  other  associated  with 
it.  Thus  C  stands  for  carbon,  Cu  for  copper,  CI  for  chlorine, 
Ca  for  calcium,  Cr  for  chromium,  Cd  for  cadmium,  Co  for 
cobalt,  &c.  The  use  of  these  syml)ols  saves  time  and  space 
in  designating  the  composition  of  compounds.  Where  a  sin- 
gle equivalent  is  intended  to  be  given,  the  symbol  of  the 
element  is  only  given  ;  but  when  two  or  more  equivalents  are 
to  be  represented,  the  symbol  has  the  number  of  the  equiva- 
lents placed  before  the  symbol.  Thus  O  means  one  equiva- 
lent of  oxygen,  30  means  three  equivalents  of  oxygen,  and 


THE   AMERTCA?^"   DYER.  ^37 

SO  on.  The  number  of  equivalents  is  now  generally  denoted 
by  a  depressed  figure  following  the  symbol ;  thus,  N2O  means 
two  equivalents  of  nitrogen  and  one  of  ox3'gen.  Sometimes 
there  are  two  or  more  proportions  of  a  compound  com])iued 
with  another  compound ;  in  that  case,  it  is  represented  by 
placing  the  figure  before  the  compound  to  be  multiplied,  and 
a  comma  or  a  -j-  at  the  end.  Thus,  SSO^jFe.  The  figure  3 
applies  to  all,between  it  and  the  comma,  meaning  three  equiv- 
alents of  sulphuric  acid  and  one  equivalent  of  iron.  The  sign 
+  is  now  generally  used,  instead  of  the  comma.  Thus, 
SSOg+Fe.  The  symbols  given  are  those  of  Berzelius,  and 
should  not  be  varied  from,  for  fear  of  destroying  their  useful- 
ness, by  creating  confusion. 

As  it  is  of  great  importance  that  these  symbols  should  be 
understood  by  the  young  dyer,  as  well  as  by  the  older  ones, 
we  will  give  a  few  of  the  combinations,  with  their  explanations, 
thus  : 

NO5  =  concentrated  nitric  acid. 

H0,N05  =  monohydrated  nitric  acid  (nitrate  of  water),  or 
the  commercial  or  common  nitric  acid. 

SO3  =  sulphuric  acid. 

HOjSOo  =  monohydrate  (sulphate  of  water,  the  common  oil 
of  vitriol). 

HO,2S03  =z  Nordhausen,  or  the  concentrated  oil  of  vitriol. 
Or  thus  : 

SO3  =1  one  equivalent  of  sulphur,  and  three  equivalents  of 
oxygen,  is  sulphuric  acid. 

HOjNOj  =  one  equivalent  of  water,  one  of  nitrogen,  and 
five  of  oxygen,  is  common  nitric  acid. 

HO,2S03  =  one  equivalent  of  water,  and  two  of  sulphuric 
acid,  is  concentrated  oil  of  vitriol. 

S03FeO  +  5H0  =  sulphuric  acid,  oxide  of  iron,  and  water, 
—  copperas. 

Some  chemists  write  it  thus :  FeO,S03  +  5H0 ;  but 
according  to  Berzelius,  it  is  FeO,S03  +  THO. 


438 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 


"  To  make  up  the  equivalent  weight  of  any  compound  from 
symbols,  we  have  simpl}'  to  multiply  the  elements  given 
according  to  the  table.  Thus,  suppose  we  take  the  sulphuric 
acid,  and  two  parts  of  water  (SO32HO),  which  is  strong  vitriol, 
we  have  — 

Eqairalent  weight. 

One  of  sulphur,       ......  ^16 

Three  of  oxygen, 8  X  3  =  24 

Two  of  water,  1  of  hydrogen,  and  8  of  oxygen,'   9  X  2  =  18 

58 


which  is  the  proportion  or  weight  of  sulphuric  acid  of  the 
strength  which  would  be  required  to  combine  with  any  other 
element,  suppose  iron,  which  is  twenty-eight;  therefore,  it 
would  require  fully  twice  the  weight  of  sulphuric  acid  of  this 
strength  to  that  of  a  piece  of  iron,  to  dissolve  it." 

The  formula  of  common  alum  will  serve  us  as  an  illustra- 
tion of  the  symbols  and  equivalunts  — 

AIA.3SO3  -I-  KCSOs  +  24HO. 

This  is  in  accordance  with  Berzelius,  but  it  has  become  gen- 
eral to  write  alum  thus  : 
SOsjAla  =  sulphate  of  alumina,  or  alumina  sulphate  =Al,S03. 

Table  of  Elements. 


Xame  of  Element. 

Symbol. 

Prime 
Equivalent. 

Najie  of  Element. 

Symbol. 

Prime 
Equivalent. 

Aluminum, 

Al 

13.7 

i  Beryllium, 

Be 

4.7 

Antimony  (stibi- 
um), 

Sb 

122. 

^  Cadmium, 
■  Calcium, 

Cd 
Ca 

55.8 
20. 

Arsenic, 

As 

75. 

!  Carbon, 

C 

6. 

Barium, 

Ba 

68.7 

1  Cerium, 

Ce 

46. 

Bismuth,     . 

Bi 

210. 

'  Chlorine, 

CI 

35.7 

Bromine,     . 

Br 

78.4    i 

Chromium 

Cr 

26.3 

Boron, 

B 

10.9 

Cobalt, 

1 

1      ^°  ' 

29.5 

THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  439 

Table  of  Elemknts. — Continued. 


Prime 

* 

Prime 

Nauii:  of  Element. 

Symbol. 

EijuivnU'iit. 

Name  of  Element. 

Symbol. 

K(|Uivulcnt. 

Cojipor, 

Cu 

31.7 

Pelopium, . 

Pe 

? 

Coiunihimn 

Phosphorus, 

P 

32. 

(Taiit:ilum*), . 

Ta 

185. 

Platinum,  . 

Pt 

98.9 

Didvniiiiiu, 

Di 

47.5 

Potassium  (Ka- 

Erbium, 

E 

56.3 

lium),     . 

K 

39.2 

Flouriue,     . 

Fl 

18.7 

Rhodium,  . 

R 

62.2 

Glucinium, 

G 

7. 

Ruthenium, 

Ru 

52.2 

Gold  (aurum),   . 

Au 

199. 

Ruljidium,. 

Rb 

85.4 

Hydrogen,  . 

II 

1. 

Selenium,  . 

Se 

40. 

Ilmenium,  . 

11 

60.2 

Silicon  (silicium). 

Si 

21.3 

Indium, 

In 

74. 

Silver    (argent- 

Iodine, 

I 

126.3 

um). 

Ag 

108. 

Iridium, 

Ir 

98.8 

Sodium     (natri- 

Iron (t'orrum),    . 

Fe 

28. 

um). 

Na 

23.3 

Lanthaiiium, 

La 

44.3 

Strontium, 

Sr 

43.8 

Ledd  (plum- 

Sulphur,   . 

S 

16. 

bum). 

Pb 

103.6 

Tantalum    (Ca- 

Lithium, 

L 

7. 

luml)ium). 

Ta 

185. 

Magnesium, 

Mg 

12. 

Tellurium, 

Te 

64. 

Manganese, 

Mn 

27.7 

Terbium,  . 

Tb 

? 

Mercury  (hydrar- 

Thallium,  . 

Tl 

204. 

gyum),    . 

Hg 

200.    . 

Thorium,  . 

Th 

69.6 

Molybdenum,     . 

Mo 

48. 

Tin   (stannum), 

Sn 

59. 

Nickel, 

Ni 

29.5 

Titanium,  . 

Ti 

25. 

Niobium,!  . 

Nb 

94. 

Tungsten  (Wol- 

Nitrogen 

framium). 

W 

92. 

(azote),  . 

N 

14. 

Uranium,  . 

U 

60. 

Norium, 

No 

? 

Vanadium, 

V 

51.2 

Osmium,     . 

Os 

99.7 

Yttrium,    . 

Y 

38.85 

Oxygen, 

0 

8. 

Zinc,  . 

Zn 

30.85 

Palladium, . 

Pd 

53.3 

Zirconium, 

Zr 

33.6 

'*  According  to  II.  M.  Rose,  the  coluuibinm  of  Hatchett,  and  tlie  tautaluiii 
of  Ekelter^,  are  distinct  metals. 

t  Niobuiu  and  j)elopinni  were  alleged  to  exist  in  the  Bavarian  and  North 
American  eolnnibites.  Bnt  H.  M.  Rose  has  announced  that  thej'  are  tlie  same, 
and  iir()i>()se8  to  retain  the  name  niobium.  It  is  not  contended  that  the  pecu- 
liar metal  of  the  cobunbites  is  different  from  that  discovered  in  I'SOl  by 
Hatchett ;  therefore,  as  justly  remarked  bj-^  Prof.  A.  Connell  of  St.  Andrews, 
it  shonhl  be  called  columbiitm,  the  name  given  it  by  its  discoverer,  and  the 
name  niobium  should  be  abandoned. 


440  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

These  are  all  the  elements  known  to  chemists  at  the  present 
time,  and  alf  the  varieties  in  which  we  find  matter  presenting 
itself  to  ns,  whether  in  the  animal,  the  vegetable,  or  the  min- 
eral kingdom,  are  made  up  of  one,  or  an  admixture  of  two 
or  more  of  these  elements. 

"We  find  that  when  two  or  more  of  these  elements  com- 
bine, the  union  alwa3's  takes  place  in  definite  proportions, 
and  that  these  proportions  are  expressed  by  figures  placed 
opposite  to  the  names  in  the  table.  "For  example,  if  we 
should  mix  together  one  ounce  of  hydrogen,  and  one  ounce  of 
oxygen,  and  bring  them  under  circumstances  to  cause  com- 
bination, it  is  found  that  the  one  ounce  of  oxygen  has  com- 
bined with  an  eighth  part  of  the  hydrogen,  and  that  other 
seven  ounces  of  oxygen  are  required  to  combine  with  the 
whole  of  the  hydrogen.  Their  combining  properties  are  there- 
fore set  down  as  one  to  eight.  This  holds  good  for  all  of  the 
elements,  so  that  the  union  is  alwa^^s  definite  and  distinct." 

"  One  element,  however,  is  often  found  to  combine  with 
another  in  a  greater  number  of  proportions  than  one  to  one. 
Thus,  suppose  nitrogen  —  which,  according  to  the  table  of 
elements,  has  a  combining  weight  of  fourteen  —  combines 
with  oxygen  in  proportions  as  follows  : 

One  nitrogen==14  to  one  oxygeu=8. 
One  nitrogen=14  to  two  oxygen=16,  two  times  8. 
One  nitrogen=14  to  three  oxygen^24,  three  times  8. 
One  nitrogeu^l4  to  four  oxygen=32,  four  times  8. 
One  uitrogen==14  to  five  oxygen=40,  five  times  8." 

"Thus,  we  observe,  that  the  proportion  of  oxygen  is  always 
eight,  or  a  multiple  of  eight;  so  it  is  with  nitrogen,  always 
fourteen,  or  twice  fourteen,  and  so  on  to  any  number  of  mul- 
tiples of  fourteen.  The  same  rule  holds  good  with  every 
element  in  the  table  ;  they  combine  only  according  to  the 
number  followina:  the  name." 

"But  when  they  thus  combine  in  different  and  distinct  quan- 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  441 

titles,  the  compounds  formcrl  are  also  distinct  and  definite. 
Thus,  one  proportion  of  nitrogen  and  one  of  oxygen  is  luun^h- 
ing-gas  ;  and  it  is  so  at  ail  times  and  under  all  circumstances, 
and  can  be  nothing  else.  But  when  two  of  oxygen  combine 
to  one  of  nitrogeni,  a  different  substance  is  formed  from  lauarh- 
ing-gas,  also  distinct  and  definite  from  every  other  proportion 
in  which  the  elements  unite.  The  first  and  last  of  the  above 
list  is  an  apt  illustration  —  the  former  being  laughing-gas,  the 
latter  aquafortis,  or  nitric  acid." 

"The  letters  placed  immediately  after  the  names  of  the  ele- 
ments are  the  symbols  commonly  used  to  represent  the  respec- 
tive elements,  and  to  facilitate  the  expression  of  the  com- 
pounds into  which  they  enter.  Thus,  to  represent  laughing- 
gas,  we  write  NO,  which  means  one  of  nitrogen  and  one  of 
oxygen.  The  symbol  always  represents  the  weight  of  the 
jJroportwn,  as  given  in  the  table,  and  the  figures  which  are 
attached  show  how  often  that  proportion  is  repeated." 

The  formula  for  sulphuric  acid  is  SO3,  which  means  one  of 
sulphur  and  three  of  oxygen,  the  figure  being  placed  after  the 
symbol  which  is  multiplied.  To  find  the  equivalent  of  any 
formula,  we  will  take  nitric  acid  as  an  example  :  NO5,  which 
means  one  of  nitrogen=fourteen,  and  five  of  oxygen=forty ; 
ox3'gen  l)eing  eight,  and  there  being  five  proportions  of  it,  we 
say  five  times  eight  are  forty,  to  which  we  add  the  one  pro- 
portion of  nitrogen,  that  being  fourteen;  so  fourteen  and 
forty  make  fifty-four,  that  being  the  prime  equivalent  of  nitric 
acid. 

It  will  be  seen,  by  looking  over  the  table  of  elements,  that 
there  arc  a  number  of  substances  there  named  which  a  great 
many  of  us  have  never  heard  of;  that. is,  that  have  never 
been  defined.  There  are  in  the  table  a  number  of  elements 
of  which  little  is  known,  except  the  fact  of  their  existence  in 
certain  compounds,  they  having  been  seen  only  by  the  discov- 
erers and  a  few  friends,  and  are  as  yet  so  rare,  and  found  in 
such  small  quantities,  that,  at  the  present  time,  their  applica- 
56 


442  THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 

tion  to  any  of  the  common  branches  of  manufactures  is  not 
thought  of.' 


COAL-TAR  COLORS. 

Coal-tar  is  a  substance  obtained  as  a  ])y-procluct  of  the  dry 
distillation  of  coal  for  the  purpose  of  manufocturing  illumi- 
nating gas,  and  is  a  complex  mixture  of  a  large  number  of 
substances,  such  as  fluid  and  solid  hydrocarbon,  called  ben- 
zole, toluol,  cumol,  cymol,  anthracene,  and  naphthaline.  The 
acids  contained  in  coal-tar  are,  the  carbolic  or  phenylic,  cres- 
ylic,  phlorylic,  and  rosolic.  The  bases  are  aniline,  chinoline, 
odorin,  picoline,  toluidine,  coridine,  &c.  If  we  leave  the 
small  amount  of  basic  substances  that  the  tar  contains,  we  find 
that  it  consists  of  the  following  substances  in  one  hundred 
parts  of  the  coal-tar  ;  • 


Benzole, 
Naphtha, 
Napthaline,  . 
Anthraciue,  . 
Carbolic  acid, 
Pitch, 


1.5 
35.0 
22.0 

1.0 

9.0 
31.5  =  100. 


By  the  distillation  of  coal-tar,  there  is  obtained  two  kinds 
of  oil — the  light,  and  the  heavy  or  dead  oil ;  one  is  lighter, 
and  the  other  heavier,  than  water.  The  light  oil  is  separated 
into  crude  naphtha,  which  contains  the  benzole  or  benzine, 
toluol,  &c.  The  heavy  oil  is  used  for  making  carbolic  acid. 
This  heavy  or  dead  oil,  is  rich  with  naphthaline.  This  crude 
naphthaline  can  be  purified  by  pressing  out  the  fluid  hydro- 
carbons, which  contaminate  it,  and  then  subliming  it  with  the 
addition  of  sand  and  lime,  which  will  retain  the  impurities. 
The  purified  naphthaline  is   in  the  form  of  white  and  pearl- 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  443 

colored  scales,  and  has  to  be  submitted  to  u  number  of  opera- 
tions to  transform  it  into  several  dyes. 

The  acid  substances  contained  in  the  coal-tar  are  removed 
by  the  caustic  solutions  of  soda  and  potash,  the  basic  sub- 
stances by  weak  sulphuric  or  muriatic  acid ;  the  benzoic, 
toluol,  naphthaline,  &c.,  are  separated  by  fractional  distilla- 
tion. 

The  most  useful  of  the  substances  contained  in  coal-tar  for 
the  manufacturing  of  coal-tar  colors,  or  aniline,  are  the  ben- 
zole, toluol,  naphthaline,  and  carbolic  acid ;  the  other  sub- 
stances are  found  mixed  with  the  above,  but  their  action  is 
little  known,  comparatively  speaking.  Benzole,  chemically 
speaking,  is  a  fluid  hydrocarbon,  and  was  discovered  by  Fara- 
day (in  1825)  among  the  products  of  the  dry  distillation  of 
oil,  in  the  liquid  resulting  from  the  strongly  compressed  oil- 
gas. 

Mitscherlich,  in  1833,  obtained  it  by  the  distillation  of 
benzoate  of  lime.  Leigh,  at  Manchester,  Eng.,  in  1842,  first 
discovered  benzole  in  coal-tar ;  and  to  Mansfield  are  we  in- 
debted for  the  method  of  separating  benzole  from  tar  by  a 
process  which  is  available  on  a  large  scale. 

Benzole  is  sold  to  the  aniline  manufacturers  at  a  certain 
specified  percentage  of  benzole  (CgHe)  ;  for  instance,  benzole  at 
thirty  or  forty  per  cent,  contains,  by  bulk  or  weight,  as  may  be 
agreed  upon,  the  above  percentage  of  benzole,  the  rest  being 
sixty  or  seventy  per  cent,  toluol  and  oxylol,  forming  a  fluid 
which  is  suitable  for  manufacturing  aniline  red ;  but  fur  mak- 
ing aniline  blue  or  black,  it  requires  a  fluid  containing  nearly 
ninety  per  cent,  of  benzole.  The  boiling-point  of  benzole  used 
for  making  the  different  aniline-dyes  varies  from  90°  to  125° 
Fahr.,  and  the  specific  gravity  varies  from  85  to  89.  H. 
Caro,  A.  and  K.  Clemm,  and  F.  Englehorn  have  suggested 
that,  instead  of  manufacturing  benzole  from  coal-tar,  it  should 
be  extracted  from  coal-gas  by  causing  this  to  be  passed  slowly 
through  tar-oils,  which  have  a  higher  boiling-point  than  ben- 
zole or  toluol,  &c.,  and  to  extract,  by  distillation,  the  benzole, 


444  THE   AMERICAX   DYER. 

&c.,  from  these  heavy  oils  after  they  have  become  saturated. 
The  heavy  oils  can  serve  the  same  purpose  again.  And  as 
regards  the  depreciation  of  the  ilhiniinating  power  of  the  gas, 
caused  hy  the  extraction  of  the  hydrocarbons,  benzole,  &c., 
which  were  present  in  the  gas  as  vapors,  these  gentlemen  sug- 
gest the  saturation  of  the  gas  with  benzaline  (petroleum 
oil). 

The  first  operation  in  the  manufacture  of  aniline-dyes  is  the 
transforming  of  the  mixture  of  benzole  and  toluol  into  nitro- 
benzole  and  nitro-toluol,  by  the  action  of  nitric  and  sulphuric 
acids  ;  the  mixture  of  the  acids  being  two  parts  of  nitric  acid 
at  40°  Baume,  —  specific  gravity,  1.384;  and  one  part  of 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  —  specific  gravity,  1.848;  the 
operation  being  carried  on  in  closed  vessels  similar  to  those 
used  for  making  aniline.  The  upper  part  of  the  apparatus  is 
fitted  with  a  tube,  for  the  purpose  of  conveying  the  nitrous- 
acid  fumes  to  a  chimney,  and  there  is  an  S-shaped  tube  con- 
necting the  apparatus  to  the  tank  that  contains  the  acid  mix- 
ture. The  amount  of  benzole  which  is  intended  to  be  nitrated 
is  put  into  the  apparatus  at  one  time ;  the  mixed  acids  are 
poured  gradually  into  the  benzole,  and  the  re-action  aided  by 
ai  stirring-machine.  Any  benzole  which  is  volatilized  by  the 
heat  caused  by  the  re-action,  is  condensed  by  an  apparatus 
connected  to  the  re-action  vessel,  and  is  thus  saved.  When 
the  re-action  has  ceased,  it  is  known  by  the  liquid  becoming 
colorless  and  its  being  separated  into  two  distinct  strata  by 
the  addition  of  water.  The  nitro-benzole  and  nitro-toluol  thus 
produced  are  separated  from  the  acid  by  washing  in  water,  to 
which  has  been  added  carbonate  of  soda ;  this  forms  the  com- 
mercial nitro-benzole  or  nitro-benzine. 

On  E.  Kopp's  suggestion,  nitro-benzole  is  now  manufactured 
by  the  aid  of  a  mixture  of  nitrate  of  soda  and  sulphuric  acid. 

"  One  hundred  kilos  of  benzole  yield  one  hundred  antl  thirty- 
five  to  one  hundred  and  forty  kilos  of  nitro-benzole." 

There  are  three  different  kinds  of  nitro-benzole,  viz.  :  — 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  445 

"  The  light  nitro-benzole,  boiling  at  210°.  This  kiiul  is  used 
in  perfumery  and  soap-making  in  very  large  (quantities,  and  is 
called  essence  de  mirhane  and  oil  of  bitter  ahiionds,  and  has  a 
speciHc  gravity  of  1.20  (=24°  B.)" 

"Second.  Heavy  nitro-benzole,  boiling  between  210°  and 
220°,  possessing  a  peculiar  fatty  smell.  It  is  not  used  in  per- 
fumery, but  chiefly  for  the  preparation  of  aniline-red  ;  speci- 
fic gravity,  1.19  (  =  28°  B.)" 

"Third.  Very  heavy  nitro-benzole,  boiling  between  222° 
and  235°  ;  specific  gravity,  1.1()7  (=58°  B.)  ;  this  kind  has  a 
disagreeable  odor,  and  is  chiefly  used  for  the  preparation  of 
aniline,  intended  for  making  aniline-blue." 

After  converting  the  coal-tar  into  nitro-benzole  and  nitro- 
toluol,  the  next  operation  consists  in  deoxidizing  these  sub- 
stances by  replacing  their  oxygen,  with  a  certain  amount  of 
hydrogen.  This  reduction  is  etfected  by  various  processes, — 
by  sulphide  of  ammonium  and  by  nascent  hydrogen.  Although 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  will  completely  reduce  nitro-benzole  to 
aniline,  those  manufiicturing  aniline  upon  a  large  scale  prefer 
to  use  Becharap's  method,  it  being  found  the  most  advanta- 
geous in  practice  ;  that  method  being  the  mixture  of  one  part 
of  nitro-benzole  with  one  part  of  acetic  acid,  to  which  is  added 
one  and  one-half  parts  of  iron-turnings.  The  apparatus  used 
for  this  operation  was  devised  by  Nicholson,  being  a  cast-iron 
cylinder  furnished  with  a  stirring  apparatus  and  a  condenser. 
Afterthe  iron,  acid  and  nitro-benzole  are  placed  in  the  cylinder, 
heat  is  applied  and  the  whole  is  distilled,  except  the  ])eroxide 
of  iron,  which  remains  in  the  cylinder  or  retort.  The  sub- 
stance that  boils  over  through  a  tube  into  a  vessel  for  that 
purpose  is  the  crude  aniline.  This  is  mixed  with  lime  or 
soda  and  re-distilled,  care  being  taken  to  collect  only  that 
which  comes  over  at  180°  ;  but  there  is  a  product  that  comes 
over  at  between  210°  and  220°,  that  is  very  suitable  for  mak- 
ing aniline-blue.  The  aniline  oil  thus  obtained  is  a  brown- 
colored  liquid,  heavier  than  water,  and  pure  enough  for  mak- 


446  THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 

ing  the  aniline-colors.  The  pure  aniline  has  a  specific  gravity 
of  1.020,  and  boils  at  360°  Fahr.  ;  it  emits  vapors  at  the  com- 
mon temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  and  when  burning  gives 
oft'  a  large,  smoky  flame.  It  is  slightly  soluble  in  water,  its 
solvents  being  ether  and  alcohol ;  it  will  form  salts  with  acids. 
According  to  the  researches  of  Brimmeyer,  the  acetic  acid  is 
not  necessary,  and  a  very  good  result  may  be  obtained  by 
mixing  sixty  parts  of  iron  with  two  to  two  and  a  half  per 
cent,  of  muriatic  acid,  and  then  pouring  it  upon  the  nitro- 
benzole,  leaving  it  in  the  retort  for  three  or  four  days  before 
distilling  off"  the  aniline-oil.  In  the  aniline  works  of  Paris 
nitro-benzole  is  reduced  to  aniline  by  the  aid  of  iron-filings, 
which  have  been  coated  with  copper  by  being  immersed  a 
solution  of  sulphate  of  copper. 

The  composition  of  aniline  oil,  essentially  a  mixture  of 
aniline  and  toluidine,  depends  upon  the  benzole  and  nitro-ben- 
zole used  in  making  the  oil.  The  aniline  oil  that  boils  between 
180°  and  190°  (and  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1.014  or  1.021, 
and  2°  to  3°  B.)  is  prepared  from  nitro-benzole,  which  boils 
between  210°  and  220°,  and  the  aniline  it  yields  is  chiefly 
used  for  making  aniline-red  or  fuchsine,  while  for  making  ani- 
line-blue a  very  heavy  nitro-benzole  is  used,  and  for  aniline- 
violet,  a  nitro-benzole  which  boils  at  210°  or  225°.  The  table 
below  shows  the  boiling-point  of  the  substances  which  have 
been  mentioned : 


"  Benzole, 

80°, 

Nitro-toluol, 

225° 

Toluol, 

108°, 

Aniline, 

182° 

Nitro-benzole, 

213°, 

Toluidine, 

198°  " 

The  aniline  oil  is  used  for  making  what  is  called  the  aniline 
colors,  such  as  aniline-red,  aniline-blue,  aniline-violet,  aniline- 
green,  aniline-yellow,  aniline-orange,  aniline-brown,  aniline- 
black,  &c. 

The  aniline-red,  known  as  fuchsine,  azaleine,  mauve,  sol- 
ferino,  roseine,  tyraline,  &c.,  is  the  combination  of  a  base 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  447 

which  Dr.  A.  W.  Hoffraunii  has  named  rosaniline,  with  an 
acid,  which  is  usually  either  muriatic  or  acetic  acid. 

The  base  rosaniline  is  a  colorless  substance,  but  its  readily 
crystallizing  salts  are  colored.  The  composition  of  this  base 
may  be  expressed  by  the  formula,  C2oHi,jNyH,0,  and  is  formed 
by  the  combination  of  two  atoms  of  toluidine  with  one  atom 
of  aniline.  One  hundred  parts  of  aniline  oil  will  yield 
twenty-five  to  thirty-three  parts  of  crystalline  fuchsine. 

Although  there  is  great  danger  in  using  arsenic  acid,  and 
great  difficulty  in  disposing  of  the  poisonous  residues  left  by 
this  method  of  preparing  fuchsine,  yet  a  large  majority  of 
fuchsine  manufacturers  use  the  arsenic  method  in  preference  to 
the  other  methods  of  obtaining  it  from  the  oil. 

According  to  Girard  and  De  Laire's  method,  one  hundred 
weight  of  aniline  oil  and  two  hundred  of  hydrate  of  arsenic 
acid,  at  60^  B.  (^specific  gravit}'  1.71),  are  heated  after  being 
mixed,  for  five  or  six  hours,  at  a  temperature  which  should  not 
be  above  190°  or  200°.  The  red  fumed  mass  which  is  formed 
by  this  operation  is  broken  up  into  small  lumps,  and  then 
boiled  with  water.  When  the  mass  is  all  dissolved,  it  is 
filtered  through  felt  bags,  and  then  poured  into  tanks,  for  the 
purpose  of  obtaining  the  crystals.  After  remaining  in  these 
tanks  three  or  four  days,  the  mother-liquor  (a  very  poisonous 
liquid)  which  covers  the  crystals,  is  run  off  into  water-tight 
tanks  made  of  stone  and  coated  with  asphalt,  and  to  precipi- 
tate from  this  mother-liquor  the  arsenic  and  arsenious  acids, 
there  is  a  mixture  of  chalk  and  lime  added  ;  the  precipitate 
formed  is  employed  for  making  the  various  arsenical  prepara- 
tions. (The  fuchsine  made  as  above  is  known  as  rubine.) 
The  crystalline  mass  is  purified  by  the  operation  of  re-crystal- 
lization. 

In  France  the  fused  mass  is  dissolved  in  muriatic  acid  and 
water,  and  then  neutralized  with  soda.  The  fuchsine  by  this 
process  is  obtained  in  a  crystalline  cake,  and  is  again  dissolved 
by  being  boiled  in  water,   and  the  solution  is   allowed  to 


448  *  TIIE    AMERICAN    DYER. 

crystallize.    Fuchsine  obtained  l)y  this  method  always  contains 
arsenic. 

The  salts  of  rosaniline,  such  as  hydrochlorate  of  rosanillne, 
acetate  of  rosaniline,  and  the  nitrate  of  rosaniline,  l)y  reflected 
light,  have  a  green  golden  color,  and  by  a  remitted  light,  a 
red  color.  These  salts,  when  dissolved  in  alcohol  or  water, 
exhibit  a  very  beautiful  carmine-red  color,  and  their  coloring 
powers  are  exceedingly  high.  Fuchsine  is  the  basis  of  a 
greater  part  of  the  other  aniline  colors. 

The  researches  of  Dr.  Hofi'mann,  Girard,  and  De  Laire,  have 
given  us  much  light  upon  the  composition  of  aniline  colors ; 
yet  there  is  not  at  the  present  day  a  correct  theory  of  these 
colors ;  that  is,  a  theory  that  will  answer  all  cases,  or  explain 
satisfactorily  all  of  the  transformations.  These  are  the  opin- 
ions now  held  by  some  of  our  most  eminent  chemists  :  firsts 
that  aniline  or  toluidine  alone  does  not  produce  colors,  while 
their  admixture  will;  second,  aniline  or  toluidine  will  both  of 
them  give  colors ;  third,  toluidine  alone  is  the  true  source  of 
the  colors,  but  it  requires  the  aid  of  aniline  oil  to  produce 
them. 

Aniline  Violet. 

This  is  known  as  aniline  purple,  violine,  raauveine,  and  was 
discovered  by  Dr.  "VV.  H.  Perkins,  in  1856,  and  is  manufact- 
ured by  the  action  of  bichromate  of  potash  and  sulphuric 
acid.  It  is  also  prepared  by  other  re-actions,  such  as  a  salt 
of  aniline  with  hydrochlorite  of  lime,  with  peroxide  of  man- 
ganese, and  with  peroxide  of  lead.  These  two  last-named 
substances  are  used  along  with  sulphuric  acid,  by  treating 
aniline  oil  with  chlorine ;  also,  with  chloride  of  copper ;  but 
Dr.  Perkins's  method  with  bichromate  and  sulphuric  acid,  is 
now  generally  used. 

The  base  of  the  violet  obtained  by  his  method  is  called 
mauveiue  ;  formula  (C2jH.^4N). 

The  violet  imperial,  which  was  obtained  by  Girard  and  De 
Laire,  by  the  action  of  chromate  of  potash  upon  a  mixture  of 
hydro-chlorate  of  rosaniline  and  aniline  oil,  heated  to  180°, 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  449 

diffors  essentially  from  the  product  mauveine,  named  jihove,  and 
another  violet  is  ohtained,  according  to  Nicholson's  pi-ocess  of 
heating  fiichsine  to  200°  or  215°,  at  which  temperature  the 
fuchsine  melts,  evolves  ammonia,  and  the  violet  is  i)roduced. 
When  a  salt  of  rosaniline  is  heated  with  an  excess  of  aniline 
oil,  there  are  formed  violet  i)igment8,  such  as  red  violet,  blue 
violet.     Hoffmann  classities  them  thus  : — 

"The  rod  violet  is  monophenyl-rosaniline. 
The  blue  violet  is  diphenyl-rosaniline." 

The  latter  substance  yields,  on  being  further  hented,  tri- 
phenyl-rosaniline  or  aniline  blue.  The  formulas  of  these  sub- 
stances, according  to  Hoffmann,  are — 

"Rosaniline  red  (CgoH^iNaO). 

Monophrenyl-rosaniline  (red  violet — C2oH2o,CgH5,X30). 
Diphenyl-rosaniline  (blue  violet — CgoHigjCgHg.jNgO). 
Triphenyl-rosaniline  (blue — C2oHig,C6H5,3N30)." 

The  violet  de  Paris,  which  was  introduced  by  Poirrier  and 
Chappat,  is  produced  by  the  action  of  chloride  of  tin  (muri- 
ate of  tin),  and  similar  compounds  upon  the  ethyl  or  methyl 
aniline. 

Blues  can  be  produced  from  these  violets  by  washing  them 
in  muriatic  acid  a  number  of  times,  which  dissolves  what  ani- 
line oil  and  fuchsine  remain  undecompbsed.  Aniline  violets 
generally  contain  some  red,  and  the  blues  some  violet  shades 
in  them. 

Aniline  Blue. 

This  color,  which  is  also  known  by  the  name  of  azuline  and 
azurine,  was  first  discovered  by  De  Laire  and  Girard,  in  1861, 
by  heating  a  mixture  of  fuchsine  and  aniline  oil  together  for  a 
few  hours,  and  then  treating  the  product  of  this  re-action  with 
muriatic  acid,  and  the  result  is  the  blue  dye  known  as  bleu  de 
Paris,  or  bleu  de  Lyons,  and  is  a  copper-colored,  shining  sub- 
57 


450  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

stance,  niul  does  not  give  a  green  or  yellow  appearance  when 
viewed  by  a  reflected  light,  as  the  fuchsine  and  aniline  violet 
do.  In  order  to  pnrify  the  aniline  blue,  it  is  Hrst  di!?solved 
in  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  and  the  mixture  heated  to  150° 
for  two  hours;  water  is  then  added  to  the  solution,  which 
causes  the  blue  to  precipitate  in  a  modified  and  soluble  form, 
which  is  then  called  soluble  blue,  or  hhu  soluble.  The  conver- 
sion of  fuchsine,  by  heating  with  aniline  oil,  into  the  aniline 
blue  (as  stated  above),  is  elucidated  by  the  following  formula, 
according  to  Dr.  Hoifmann — 

"C2oH,,N3ClH  +  3CeH,N  =  QoH,«,CeH„3N3HCl  +  3NH3. 

Rosauiliiie  salt.  Aniliue.  Auiliiio  blue.  Ammonia." 

"The  aniline  blue  thiis  prepared  is  rosaniline  (C6H42C7HgH3 
+  N3),  in  which  three  atoms  of  basic  hydrogen  have  been 
substituted  for  three  atoms  of  phenyl  (CgH^)  ;  or,  in  other 
words,  this  aniline  blue  is  triphenyl-rosauiliue,  the  hydrochlo- 
i-ate  of  which  is  CggHgaNgCl." 

Aniline  Green. 

We  are  acquainted  with  but  two  kinds  of  this  oolor,  the 
aldehyde  green,  and  the  iodine.  The  first,  also  called  cmer- 
aldine,  was  discovered  by  Cherpin,  chemist  at  the  aniline 
works  in  Saint  Ouen,  in  1863,  and  is  made  by  treating  a  sul- 
phuric-acid solution  of  the  sulphate  of  rosaniline  with  alde- 
hyde. By  heating  this  mixture  with  great  care,  there  will  be 
a  deep  green  pigment  obtained,  which  .contains  sulphur. 
When  it  is  used  for  coloring,  hyposulphite  of  soda  is  added  to 
it,  then  boiled  until  all  is  dissolved,  before  immersingthe  wool 
or  fabric.  This  is  used  more  for  silk-dyeing  than  for  wool  or 
cotton.  Sulphuret  of  ammonium,  or  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
can  be  used  in  place  of  the  hydrosulphite  of  soda.  This  aniline 
green  is  very  beautiful  when  viewed  by  artificial  light. 

The  iodine  green  is  manufactured  by  the  following  process  : 
One  part  of  acetate  of  rosaniline,  two  parts  of  iodine  of 
methyl,  and  two  parts  of  methylic  alcohol  are  mixed  together, 


THE    AMEKICAX   DYER.  451 

and  heat  applied  for  several  hours,  under  a  high  pressure. 
When  the  operation  is  completed,  the  result  is  a  mixture  of 
green  and  violet  substances,  dissolved  in  the  alcohol.  The 
volatile  substances  having  been  driven  off  by  the  operation  of 
distilling,  the  mixture  of  pigments  is  next  put- into  l)oiling 
water,  in  which  the  green  is  completely  dissolved,  but  the 
violet  pigment  will  remain  insoluble.  The  green  is  now  pre- 
cipitated by  a  saturated  solution  of  picric  acid  in  cold  water. 
This  precipitate  (called  picrate  of  iodine  green)  is  collected 
upon  a  filter,  and  then  quickly  washed  with  water,  and,  when 
partly  dried,  is  brought  into  the  market  as  a  paste. 

A  crystalline  iodine,  w^hich  is  free  from  picric  acid,  has  this 
formula-C,,H33N30l2. 

To  })rint  cotton  goods  with  this  aniline,  the  first  process  is 
to  prepare  or  mordant  the  cloth  with  chlorate  of  potash,  then 
mix  nine  pounds  of  starch  and  one  and  a  half  pounds  chlorate 
of  potash  together,  and  when  perfectly  cold  add  four  and  a 
half  pounds  of  the  aniline.  After  the  goods  are  printed,  they 
are  placed  in  the  ageing-rof)m,  where  after  a  few  hours,  a 
bright  green  will  appear  ;  the  cloth  is  then  washed  oft".  Should 
the  printed  goods  be  run  through  a  solution  of  bichromate  of 
potash,  the  green  color  would  be  transformed  into  a  dark 
indigo  blue,  caused  by  a  further  oxidation  of  the  green  color. 
Soap  or  alkalies  will  turn  this  green  into  a  blue,  but  by  im- 
mersing the  goods  in  an  acidulated  bath,  the  green  color  is 
restored  to  its  primitive  shade  again. 

Aniline  Yellow. 

This  color  is  known  also  as  phospine,  victoria  orange,  and 
chrysaniline  yellow.  The  last  named  is  the  secondary  product, 
from  the  manufacture  of  aniline  red  or  fuchsine,  and  is  used 
for  dyeing,  combined  with  acetic  and  muriatic  acid.  Chrysan- 
iline colors  wool  and  silk  a  most  brilliant  yellow.  Chrysani- 
line was  extracted  by  Nicholson,  from  a  resynous  substance 
found  in  aniline  oil,  as  a  brilliant  yellow-colored  pigment,  and 
he  called  it  one  of  the  bases  of  rosaniline. 


452  THE    AMERICAN   DYEK. 

Schiff  obtained  aniline  yellow,  by  the  action  of  hydrated 
oxide  of  tin  upon  aniline.  M.  Vogel  obtained  a  yellow  pig- 
ment, by  the  action  of  nitrous  acid  upon  an  alcoholic  solution 
of  rosaniline. 

The  formula  of  aniline  3'ellow  is  CjoHigNaOg. 

Aniline  Black. 

A  deep  aniline  green,  which  was  formed  by  the  oxidizing 
agent's  use  upon  aniline  oil,  was  first  observed  by  Dr.  J.  Von 
Fritzshce,  as  early  as  1842.  It  was  formerly  prepared  from 
residues  left  after  the  preparation  of  aniline  violet  with  bi- 
chromate of  potash  ;  but  now  aniline  black  is  obtained  by  the 
action  of  chlorate  of  copper  and  chlorate  of  potash  upon 
hydrochlorate  of  aniline  (fuchsine),  as  is  recommended  by 
Lightfoot,  who  discovered  the  process.  The  advantage  of  his 
process  is,  that  the  dye  or  the  paste  for  printing  will  not  cor- 
rode the  steel  parts  of  the  printing-machine,  and  that  it  will 
absorb  enough  oxygen  to  transform  it  into  a  sulphate  of  ani- 
line. 

It  has  been  proved,  however,  by  Cordillot,  that  the  chlo- 
rate of  potash  and  copper  can  be  replaced  by  ferrieyanide  of 
ammonium.  The  black  made  by  this  process  has  to  be 
printed  upon  the  fabric. 

Recently,  the  so-called  Peterson's  black  has  been  obtained, 
its  most  valuable  principle  or  property  being  that  it  is  a 
ready-made  l)lack  ;  and  to  fully  develop  it,  it  requires  a  slight 
oxidation.  This  aniline  black  is  a  black  fluid  mass  of  hydro- 
chlorate  gf  aniline  and  acetate  of  copper.  It  is  mixed  with 
thickening  composed  of  either  starch,  dextrine,  or  gum  ara- 
ble, and  then  printed  upon  the  yarn  or  cloth.  After  printing 
it  has  to  be  oxidized  by  exposing  the  fabric  to  the  atmos- 
phere ;  the  oxidation  can  be  rendered  more  quickly  by  plac- 
ing the  fabric  in  a  room,  with  a  temperature  of  about  45°. 
The  color  will  appear  at  its  true  shade  after  washing.  Care 
Avill  have  to  be  taken   that  the  fabric  is  dried  directly  after 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  453 

printing,  as,  if  the  cloth  is  left  and  folded  up,  there  is  danger 
of  spontaneous  combustion. 

Aniline  black,  as  yet,  has  not  been  prepared  so  as  to  be  a 
permanent  color  on  wool  or  woolen  fabrics,  but  the  time  is 
not  distant  when  some  method  will  be  discovered,  so  as  to 
make  it  as  permanent  a  color  on  wool  as  any  of  the  other 
aniline  dyes. 

Aniline  brown,  or  Habana  brown,  is  made,  according  to 
De  Laire,  by  heating  aniline  blue  or  aniline  violet  with  fuch- 
sine  at  140°,  until  the  mixture  is  of  a  brown  color.  The  brown 
obtained  in  this  manner  is  very  soluble  in  water. 

The  Bismarck  brown,  so  called,  is  obtained  by  fusing  fuch- 
siue  wnth  dry  aniline  oil  at  a  temperature  of  450°.  The  oper- 
ation is  complete  when  vapors  of  a  yellow  color  make  their 
appearance,  as  the  mass  is  suddenly  transformed  into  brown 
when  these  vapors  appear.  This  brown  is  also  soluble  in 
"water. 

Until  within  the  last  ten  years,  anilines  were  not  soluble  in 
water ;  and  at  the  present  time  we  receive  them  as  soluble  in 
water  and  soluble  in  alcohol. 


CARBOLIC  ACID  COLORS. 

In  distilling  coal-tar  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  aniline, 
we  have  mentioned  that  there  were  two.  kinds  of  oil  obtained, 
designated  by  the  names  of  light  and  heavy  oils,  and  that  from 
the  light  oils  benzole  was  obtained.  Carbolic  acid  is  prepared 
from  the  heavy  oil,  which  boils  over  at  170°  to  200°,  during 
the  manufacturing  of  benzole,  toluol,  &c.,  from  tar.  It  is 
called  phylicacid,  phenol  by  some  chemists,  and  others  call  it 
phenic  acid,  which  appears  to  be  the  most  correct  term,  for 
this  reason  :  If  aniline  is  an  amide  of  the  radical  phenyl, 
and  is  often  called  phenylamine,  phenic  acid  must  be  closely 
related   to   it,   being  an  oxide  of  phenyl,  and  aniline  being 


454  THE    AMERICAX    DYER. 

already  found  formed  in  coal-tar,  proceeds  from  the  re-action 
of  phenic  acid  upon  ammonia,  which  is  always  produced  by 
the  decomposition  of  bituminous  coal,  and  this  re-action  takes 
place  by  pressure,  or  by  an  elevation  of  temperature,  or  by 
both  of  these  ;  and  if  so,  the  formula  is — 

NH,0  +  Ci^H^O  =  Q.H.N  +  2H0 

Ammouia.     Plieuic  Acid.       Aniliuc.  Water. 

For  these  reasons  we  prefer  the  name  of  phenic  acid  to 
carbolic,  although  in  the  trade  carbolic  acid  is  the  only  name 
used  for  this  substance. 

Carbolic  acid,  as  manufactured  by  Calvert  &  Co.,  C.  Lowe 
&  Co.,  as  well  as  by  other  eminent  firms,  is  a  crystalline  mass, 
which  will  become  slightly  red-colored  by  being  exposed  to 
the  air.  It  fuses  at  about  35°,  and  boils  at  188°.  Carbolic 
acid  is  made  by  treating  the  heavy  oils  of  tar  with  alkalies. 
Carbolic  acid  is  soluble  in  thirty-three  parts  of  water.  Cal- 
vert's carbolic  acid,  such  as  is  used  for  manufacturing  the  so- 
called  carbolic  acid  colors,  is  prepared  by  cooling  a  mixture  of 
the  Laurent  acid  in  water.  At  4°  a  hydrate  of  carbolic  acid  is 
separated,  and  by  elimination  of  water  it  will  become  pure 
carbolic  acid,  and  will  fuse  at  41°.  Carbolic  acid  is  largely 
used,  in  its  several  degrees  of  purity,  for  such  purposes  as  an 
antiseptic,  disinfectant,  <&;c. ;  yet  more  than  one-half  of  all 
that  is  manufactured  is  used  for  obtaining  such  pigments  and 
dyeing-materials  as  the  following:  1.  Picric  acid.  2.  Phe- 
nyl brown.     3.  Grenat  soluble.      4.  Corraline.     5.   Azuline. 

Picric  Acid. 
This  substance  is  also  known  as  carbazotic  acid  or  trinitro- 
phenylic  acid,  and  its  formula  is  C6H3,N0.2,30 ;  Berzelius 
Ci.;,H._,3No^,0-}-nO.  Picric  acid  is  obtained  l)y  the  oxidation 
of  carbolic  acid  by  nitric  acid.  It  is  a  yellow,  crystallized 
substance,  which  is  readily  dissolved  in  hot  water,  but  difficult 
in  cold  water ;  it  is  also  soluble  in  alcohol.    It  is  used  for  dye- 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  455 

ing  silk  and  wool  yellow  ;  also  for  green  with  iodine-green 
crystals,  and  for  green  with  suli)hate  of  iiuligo.  (See  recipes 
for  greens.)  In  France  there  are  over  one  hnndred  tons  man- 
ufactnred  annually,  but  the  greater  part  of  it  is  used  for 
making  picrate  gunpowder,  or  the  powder  used  for  the  needle- 
gun.  For  dyeing  purposes  it  has  been  the  practice  to  use  the 
soda-salt  of  this  acid,  under  the  name  of  picric  acid  or  aniline 
yellow,  instead  of  using  the  pure  (or  non-explosive)  picric 
acid,  and  by  so  doing  it  has  given  rise  to  some  very  serious 
accidents  in  some  of  the  d3e-h()uses  in  England. 

When  picric  acid  was  first  prepared,  it  was  obtained  by  mix- 
ing fine  i)ulverized  indigo  with  nitric  acid  (the  acid  first  being 
diluted  with  seven  or  eight  times  its  weight  of  water)  ;  a  gen- 
tle heat  was  then  applied  to  the  mixture,  which  dissolved  the 
indigo  with  effervescence,  forming  a  yellow-colored  liquid. 
This  was  allowed  to  stand  for  a  short  time  ;  it  was  then  de- 
canted from  any  resinous  matter  formed  during  the  operation  ; 
then  it  was  concentrated  by  evaporation,  depositing  a  quantity 
of  yellowish-white  crystals  of  a  sourish-bitter  taste,  and  re- 
quiring nearly  one  hundred  parts  of  cold  water  to  dissolve  them. 
This  at  the  time  was  called  indigotic  acid,  but  now  called 
anilic  acid,  from  the  name  of  a  plant  that  yields  indigo  anil. 
This  acid  will  combine  with  all  known  bases,  forming  gener- 
ally yellow-colored  salts,  and  gives  a  blood-red  color  to  any 
solution  of  the  per-salts  of  iron. 

If  indigo  is  added  to  concentrated  nitric  acid,  and  heat 
applied  to  it,  the  indigo  is  quickly  dissolved,  and  at  the  same 
time  a  large  amount  of  nitrous  fjas  evolved.  When  the 
liquid  has  become  cold,  a  great  amount  of  semi-transparent 
yellow  crystals  are  formed,  which  have  a  bitter  taste. 

These  crystals  were  formerly  called  carbazotic  acid,  but 
now  called  picric  acid.  To  procure  picric  acid  in  a  pure 
state,  the  crystals  that  are  obtained  by  the  above  acid  are 
washed  in  cold  water;  then  boiled  in  enough  water  to  dissolve 
them  ;  the  liquid  is  then  filtered  and  allowed  to  cool,  when  it 
will   again   crystallize  in    brilliant  yellow  prisms.     This  acid 


4:5G  THE    AMERICAX   DYER. 

can  also  be  obtained  by  the  action  of  nitric  acitl  upon  anilic 
acid.  At  the  present  time  picric  acid  is  not  obtained  by  any 
of  the  above  methods,  being  now  obtained  from  carbolic  acid 
only.  This  picric  acid,  made  from  carbolic  acid,  readily  crys- 
tallizes, and  will  explode  when  heated.  It  is  poisonous  when 
taken  in  large  doses,  ten  grains  having  been  known  to  kill  a 
dosr  in  less  than  two  hours.  It  was  first  used  as  a  medicine 
for  intermittent  fever  by  Dr.  Bell  of  Manchester,  Eng.,  and 
he  thought  that  it  could  be  emplo3''ed  as  a  sul)stitute  for 
quinia.  The  salts  which  picric  acid  forms  with  soda  or  pot- 
ash, are  yellow-colored  and  very  bitter,  and  are  called  picrate 
of  potash,  and  are  capable  of  violent  explosion  from  a  severe 
blow  or  from  an  elevated  temperature,  and  in  181)9,  a  very 
fatal  consequence  occurred  from  an  explosion  of  a  large  amount 
of  it,  in  one  of  the  magazines  in  Paris,  where  it  was  stored. 

Picric  acid  in  its  constitution  is  very  permanent ;  it  is  not 
decomposed  by  being  fused  with  either  iodine  or  chlorine, 
neither  will  a  solution  of  chlorine  affect  it.  Sulphuric  acid 
■when  hot  will  dissolve  it,  but  when  cold  it  has  no  action  upon 
it.  Nitro-muriatic  acid  (aqua  I'egia)  dissolves  it  with  diffi- 
culty ;  boiling  muriatic  acid  does  not  act  upon  it. 

Picric  acid  is  a  test  for  potash  in  any  fluid  ;  a  solution  of  it 
made  in  alcohol  produces  a  bright  yellow  crystalline  precipi- 
tate. Its  formula  according  to  Berzelius  is,  Ci2,H.,3N04, 
O+HO,  being  phenylic  acid,  with  three  equivalents  of  hydro- 
gen replaced  l)y  three  of  hyponitric  acid. 

Phenyl  brown,  Phenidenne  or  RotJdne,  so  called  from  its 
discoverer,  Koth,  was  first  made  by  him  in  1865,  by 
causing  nitric  acid  and  sulphuric  acid  to  act  upon  carbolic 
acid,  the  substance  obtained  being  phenicienne  or  phenyl 
brown,  which  is  an  amorphous  powder,  a  mixture  of 
two  pigments  ;  viz.,  a  yellow  and  a  black-brown  substance, 
which  is  similar  to  the  humus  compounds.  It  is  brown- 
colored,  soluble  in  alcohol,  alkalies,  and  acetic  acid,  but  of 
little  solubility  in  water,  either  hot  or  cold.  It  produces  per- 
manent colors,  and  the  shades  obtained  vary  according  to  the 


THE    AMERIC^VIS"    DYER.  457 

mordiints  used,  but  like  the  grenat  brown  will  not  stand  the 
steaming  process. 

Gienat  brown,  grenat  soluble.  This  has  recently  been  in- 
troduced l)y  J.  Casthelaz  in  Paris,  as  a  substitute  for  ovseille, 
but  is  nothing  more  than  the  well-known  isopurpuratc  of  i)ot- 
ash  (^CgHJvN^Oe),  which  was  iirst  discovered  by  Hlasiwetz, 
and  is  formed  by  gradually'  adding  a  solution  of  picric  acid  to 
a  solution  of  cyanide  of  potassium.  By  this  operation  prussic 
acid  and  ammonia  arc  evolved,  and  the  purpuric  acid  will 
crystallize  when  the  soluticju  becomes  cold.  This  substance 
is  sold  under  the  name  of  grenat  broivn  and  soluble  ruby.  As 
this  substance  when  perfectly  dry,  is  explosive  with  the  least 
friction,  it  is  kept  in  paste,  to  which  is  added  a  quantity  of 
glycerine  sufficient  to  keep  it  moist.  With  a  zinc  mordant  it 
colors  wool  a  beautiful  yellow,  and  with  corrosive  sublimate 
a  magnificent  purple. 

Coralline,  sometimes  called  Peonine,  is  a  scarlet-dye  mate- 
rial, and  was  discovered  by  J.  Persoz,  and  is  formed,  according 
to  Kalbe  and  Schmidt,  by  mixing  together  carbolic,  (jxalic, 
and  sulphuric  acids,  and  heating  the  mixture  in  a  closed  vessel, 
at  a  temperature  of  300°  until  the  color  has  been  sufficiently 
developed.  When  the  re-action  is  finished,  the  mass  is  then 
washed  in  boiling  water  ;  this  is  done  fur  the  purpose  of  elimi- 
nating the  excess  of  acid.  They  next  dry  the  residue,  pulverize 
it,  and  submit  it  at  150°  to  the  action  of  ammonia.  Coralline 
is  solul)le  in  alkaline  solutions,  acetic  acid,  and  alcohol.  It 
does  not  produce  a  very  permanent  color. 

The  existing  relation  between  rosalicacid  (CooHjeOg),  which 
Avas  discovereil  in  tar  by  Runge,  aud  coralline,  is  not  yet  fully 
established.  Rosalie  acid  is  formed  by  heating  together 
twenty  parts  of  phenic  acid,  fifteen  parts  of  oxalic  acid,  and 
twelve  parts  of  sulphuric  acid.  This  acid  is  insoluble  in 
■water,  but  soluble  in  ether  and  alcohol.  It  can  be  formed 
from  carbolic  acid  and  creyslic  acid  (CyHgO),  as  rosaniline  is 
formed  from  aniline  and  toluidine. 

58 


458  THE    AMERICAN   DYEK. 

AzuLixE   (Phenyl  Blue). 

This  substance  is  formetl  by  heating  commercial  aniline  and 
coralline  together,  taking  five  parts  of  coralline  and  seven 
parts  of  aniline,  and  was  first  obtained  by  J.  Persoz  and 
Guinon-Marnas.  It  is  a  blue  pigment,  and  is  termed  azuliue 
or  azurine. 

It  has  been  attempted  to  prepare  pigments  directly  from 
nitro-benzole.  Laurent  and  Casthelaz  state  that  a  red  pigment 
is  obtained  by  keeping  a  mixture  of  twelve  parts  of  nitro- 
benzole,  twenty-four  parts  of  iron-filings,  and  six  parts  of 
muriatic  acid,  for  thirty-six  hours  at  the  common  temperature 
of  the  atmosphere.  In  this  method  there  is  formed  a  solid 
resinous  mass,  which  is  first  exhausted  with  water,  and  the 
solution  precipitated  with  common  salt.  The  pigment  which 
is  thus  obtained  is  said  to  be  a  good  substitute  for  fuchsine, 
and  is  capable  of  being  used  as  a  dye,  and  for  calico-printing. 

Naphthaline  (CjoHg). 

This  material  was  discovered,  in  coal-tar,  by  Garden,  in  the 
year  1820,  and  was  afterwards  the  subject  of  investigation  by 
Faraday  and  Hoffmann,  Ballo,  and  others,  and  has  been  the 
profound  study  of  Laurent. 

Naphthaline  is  a  white,  shining,  crystalline  substance,  and 
is  fusible  at  IK^P,  and  boils  at  423°.  Its  specific  gravity, 
according  to  Kopp,  in  the  liquid  state,  is,  0.9774;  accord- 
ing to  Alluard,  at  210°  it  is  0.9628.  It  is  soluble  in  ether, 
alcohol,  naphtha,  and  is  insoluble  in  water.  Its  odor  is  pecu- 
liar, and  somewhat  similar  to  storax,  and  it  has  a  burning  taste. 
"When  cool,  after  having  been  fused,  it  appears  as  a  white, 
crystalline  mass,  and  then  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1.151. 
When  treated  with  nitric  acid,  naphthaline  yields  phthalic 
acid  (C8Hg04),  which,  according  to  circumstances,  and  by 
elimination  of  carbonic  acid  (H0CO3),  may  be  either  converted 
into  benzole  (CgHg),  or  into  benzoic  acid  (CHH^Oa-f-HO)- 

"There  exists  between  the  derivatives  of  benzole  and  naph- 


THE    AMEEICAIS'   DYER.  459 

tbaline  a  great  analogy,  which  not  only  extends  to  the  com- 
position and  re-action,  but  even  to  chemical  and  physical 
properlies.  The  analogy  of  composition  is  exhibited  by  the 
following  tabulated  foi'in  :  — 

"Benzal  (hj'^dride  of  phenyl),  CgHg. 
Nitro-benzole,  C6H5(NOa). 
Aniline,  C6II7N. 
Ilosaniline,  C20H19N3. 

Naphthaline  (hydride  of  naphthyl),  CjoHg. 
Nitro-naphthaline,  CioH7(NO,2) . 
Naphthylaraine,  CjoHgN. 
Base  of  naphthaline  red,  C30H21N3." 

Naphthylamine  (C10H9O3)  is  a  base  which  corresponds  to 
aniline,  and  it  is  prepared  from  naphthaline  in  exactly  the 
same  way  as  aniline  is  from  benzole,  by  converting  naphtha- 
line into  nitro-naphthaline  by  the  aid  of  nitric  and  sulphuric 
acids,  or  nitro-sulphuric  acid.  It  is  then  converted  into 
naphthylamine.  This  crystallizes  in  white,  acicular  crystals. 
It  fuses  at  50°,  and  boils  at  about  320°.  Its  taste  is  a  sharp 
bitter,  and  is  almost  insoluble  in  water,  when  heated  with 
arsenic  acid  (A3O5),  or  with  nitrate  of  mercury.  It  produces 
a  fine  purple  dye,  which,  however,  is  not  fast.  Naphthy- 
lamine, also,  serves  to  prepare  such  dyes  as  the  Martins  yel- 
low, naphthaline  violet,  magdala  red,  and  naphthaline  blue. 

The  Martius  yellow  is  better  known  in  England  as  Man- 
chester yellow,  or  naphthaline  yellow.  Its  formula  is  CioHg 
(N02)20.  This  dye  is  obtained  by  heating  hydrochlorate  of 
naphthylamine  with  nitrate  of  soda,  and  afterwards  with 
nitric  acid.  This  dye  imparts  to  wool  or  silk,  without  the 
aid  of  any  mordant,  yellow  hues,  which  may  be  made  to  dif- 
fer, in  depth  of  color,  from  a  lemon-yellow  to  a  deep  golden- 
yellow.  The  discoverer  of  this  d3'e  (Dr.  C.  A.  Martius)  con- 
siders it  to  be  an  acid  analagous  to  picric  acid,  and  calls  it 
hinitro-naphthylic  acid.     Picric  acid  yellow  will  not  admit  of 


460  THE    AMEKICAX   DYER. 

the  steaming  process,  while  the  Manchester  yellow  will  admit 
of  the  steaming  operation.  The  dye  is  used  in  America  for 
the  purpose  of  modifying  the  hue  of  magenta. 

Magdala  red.  This  pigment,  which  is  naphthaline  red, 
was  discovered  by  Von  Schiendl  of  Vienna  in  1867.  This 
substance  has  been  subject  to  the  researches  of  such  eminent 
chemists  Durant,  Kestner,  Hoffmann  and  others.  It  is  gene- 
rated naphthylamine  by  the  elimination  of  three  molecules  of 
hydrogen  from  three  molecules  of  the  base ;  thus  — 

3QoH9N-3H,0=C^Hi,N3. 

Naplithyla-      Water.   Magdala  red. 
miue. 

"On  the  large  scale  the  manufacture  of  magdala  red  is 
produced  in  two  stages.  In  the  first  instance  the  naphthyla- 
mine is  converted  into  azodinaphthyl-diamine  by  the  action  of 
nitric  acid,  thus  — 

"  First  stage  :  — 

2C,oH,N  +  HNO3  =  2H,0  +  C^oHi^Ng. 

Naphthylamine.  Water.      Azodiiiaphtliyl- 

diamiue." 

"In  the  second  stage  the  azodinaphthyl-diamine  is  treated 
with  naphthylamine,  the  result  being  the  formation  of  the 
magdala  red." 

The  re-action  may  be  represented  by  the  following  formula : 

QoH.aNa  +  C10H3N  =  C^oH^iXg  +  NH3 
Azodi-  Napbtbyl-         Magdala  Am- 

naphthyl-  amine.  red.  mouia. 

diamine. 

The  magdala  red  we  find  in  the  trade  is  of  a  black-brown 
color  and  is  a  crystalline  powder ;  it  is  the  chloride  of  a  base 
in  the  composition  above  described.  In  regard  to  its  coloring 
power,  it  is  no  less  valuable  than  fuchsine  or  magenta,  and  it 
surpasses  fuchsine  in  its  permanency.     When  magdala  red  is 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  461 

treated  with  iodide  of  methyl  and  iodide  of  ethyl,  naphthaline 
red  yields  violet  and  blue  colors. 

Naphthaline  Blue  and  Naphthaline  Violet. 

"Bhic  and  violet  naphthaline  pigments  can  be  prepared  by 
various  methods ;  for  instance,  by  treating  naphthylamine 
with  nitrate  of  mercury  (HgO,2N65+lCIIO)."  * 

Wilder  obtains  these  dyes  by  substituting  the  radical 
naphthyl  for  the  hydrogen  of  the  aniline  and  toluidine.  J. 
Wolft*,  in  1867,  obtained  a  very  brilliant  naphthyl  blue  in  this 
manner.  M.  Ballo  did  the  same  from  rosaniline  and  niono- 
bromnaphthaline,  also  from  rosaniline  and  naphthylamine. 

Very  recently  Blumer-Zweifel,  and  Kielmeyer  have  colored 
naphthaline  violet  on  cotton  and  linen  cloth  by  treating 
naphthylamine  (which  was  previously  painted  upon  the 
cloth)  by  immersing  the  fabric  in  a  solution  of  chlorine  of 
copper  and  chloride  of  potash,  and  by  such  other  re-agents  as 
may  be  employed  for  producing  an  aniline  black. 

The  coloring  of  aniline-black  upon  wool  has  not  yet  been 
successfully  produced,  the  nearest  result  being  the  chlorine 
process  of  Mr.  Lightfoot.  Recent  experiments  that  have  been 
made  lead  us  to  hope  that  aniline  black  will  be  employed  on 
wool  as  well  as  on  cotton,  with  the  same  results  as  to  its  per- 
manency. Aniline  black,  prepared  either  with  bichromate  of 
potash  or  chlorate,  will  color  wool  a  fast  gray.  There  are 
two  processes  now  employed  to  fix  this  color  upon  cotton. 
Messrs.  Paraf  and  Javal  pass  the  cotton  fal)ric  through  a  bath 
which  contains  a  mixture  of  sulphate  of  aniline  and  bichromate 
of  potash ;  by  this  process  the  color  will  appear  upon  the 
fabric  as  soon  as  it  is  taken  out  of  the  bath ;  but  the  tem- 
perature of  the  bath  will  have  to  be  kept  at  about  30°  Fahr., 
and  not  above  the  freezing-point. 

The  other  method  consists  in  first  passing  the  cotton  through 

*  This  salt  is  a  nitrate  of  peroxide  of  uiercury,  and  sliould  be  rcpreseuted 
by  this  formula,  HgO,N05,  iudepeudeut  of  water  of  crystallization.  —  G. 


462  THE    AMElilCAX   DYER. 

a  bath  containing  chroraate  of  lead,  and  then  through  an 
aciduhited  hath  of  oxahite  of  aniline.  In  this  process  the  re- 
action, taking  place  only  upon  the  cloth,  the  temperature  has 
not  to  be  so  low  as  by  the  other  method.  (See  article.  Im- 
provement in  Aniline.) 

For  the  improvements  and  new  discoveries  in  colors  derived 
from  coal  and  its  products,  see  the  translation  from  the  report 
of  the  Universal  Exposition  at  Vienna  in  1873.  (See  article, 
Improvement  in  Aniline.) 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  463 


A   BRIEF    IIISTOKY 

OF    THE 

DISCOVERY  OF  COtORS  DERIVED  FROM  COAL. 


The  manufucture  of  coloriiig-materiuls  derived  from  coal  is 
of  recent  date  (1856).  It  is  to  Perkins,  the  young  English 
chemist,  that  the  honor  of  this  discovery  and  industry  belongs. 
Perkins,  while  trying  to  obtain  artificial  quinine  from  coal,  l)y 
the  re-action  of  an  oxidizing  agent  upon  the  sulphate  of  ani- 
line, obtained  some  violet,  which  he  separated  from  a  black 
mass  that  did  not  appear  to  ofler  much  of  interest.  This  color 
immediately  produced  a  great  sensation  in  industry,  because 
of  its  in  omparable  brilliancy,  its  solidity,  and  the  source 
from  which  it  was  derived.  A  magnificent  and  brilliant  color 
extracted  from  black  and  dull  pit-coal.  There  was  an  opposi- 
tion which  aided  powerfully  in  spreading  the  news  of  this 
great  discovery.  The  price  of  this  coloring-material  was  so 
high  that  few  dyers  and  manufacturers  believed  in  its  future 
employment  ($445  per  pound,  avoirdupois). 

The  discoverer  himself  hesitated  much  about  inaugurating 
the  manufacture  of  this  color,  and  he  was  anticipated  in  the 
production  of  this  coloring-material  in  large  quantities  by 
several  French  manufacturers,  among  whom  were  Mons. 
Poii'rier  and  Chappat,  Jr.,  who  brought  some  modifications  to 
Perkins's  process.  To  make  this  new  violet,  the  difficulties 
were  very  great  indeed.  The  patent  obtained  by  Perkins 
indicated  very  plainly  the  process  for  obtaining  this  color 
(re-action  of  the  bichromate  of  potash  upon  the  sulphtite  of 
aniline).     But  although  aniline  was  known  to  the  savants. 


464  THE    AIMERICAN   DYER. 

who  possessed  some  grains  of  it  in  their  laboratories,  it  was 
but  little  known  to  manufacturers.  There  were  no  makers  of 
aniline. 

The  scientific  works  were  consulted,  and  it  was  then 
ascertained  that  the  most  advantajjeous  method  of  obtaininjr 
aniline,  was  that  of  preparing  it  by  means  of  nitro-benzine. 
This  last  product  was  not  made  much  more  than  aniline, 
although  Collas  and  Laroque  were  making  some  few  pounds 
of  it,  which  they  sold  for  perfumery,  under  the  name  of 
essence  of  mirbane.  All,  then,  was  to  be  created:  manufact- 
ure of  aniline,  manufacture  of  nitro-benzine.  It  was  not 
quite  necessary  for  them  to  organize  for  the  manufacture  of 
benzine.  Benzine  had,  up  to  that  time,  only  very  restricted 
uses.  It  served  for  the  cleansing  of  goods,  and  was  sold 
under  the  name  of  "Collas  benzine."  Inquiry  was  made  at 
the  gas-factories  for  benzine  ;  and  the  manufacturers  of  colors 
finding  at  those  places  an  almost  inexhaustible  repository  of  raw 
material,  brought  to  these  factories  a  source  of  profits,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  disembarrassing  them  of  an  encumberins: 
product  (coal-tar).  It  was  the  English  manufacturers  who 
first  began  to  distil  their  oils.  All  that  part  of  the  business 
was  rapidly  created.  In  less  than  three  years  this  multiple 
industry  of  coloring-materials  derived  from  coal-tar  was  on  its 
feet.  It  was  soon  in  operation  upon  the  largest  scale  in 
France,  in  England,  then  in  Germany. 

The  manufacture  of  nitro-benzine,  notwithstanding  the 
difficulties  and  dangers  of  explosion  and  conflagrations  which 
it  presented  in  the  beginning,  did  not  prevent  the  manufact- 
urers in  France  or  in  England  from  making  it.  The  manu- 
facture of  aniline  was  established  after  a  process  discovered 
by  Bechamp,  a  French  chemist,  which  was  the  only  one 
practicable  among  the  various  processes  then  indicated,  and 
which  is  to  this  day  followed  for  its  manufacture  by  all  the 
manufacturers  of  aniline.  Industry  made  a  large  application 
of  the  processes  which  were  furnished  to  it  by  science. 

Aniline,  which   was   hardly  known,  and   which  was    pro- 


THE    AMERICAX   DYER.  465 

diiced  at  first  at  the  price  of  150  francs  the  kilogramme,  fell 
rapidly  to  25  francs  per  kilogramme.* 

"  From  the  day  that  aniline  was  produced  at  twenty-five 
francs  it  became  certain  that  the  aniline  colors  would  receive 
the  greatest  development. 

The  investigators,  stimulated  by  the  profits  which  was 
judged  would  accrue  to  those  who  first  engaged  in  its  manu- 
facture, set  themselves  to  the  work;  and  in  1859,  Verguin, 
industrial  chemist  at  Lyons,  created  the  manufacture  of  ani- 
line red.  This  red  had  been  seen  some  months  before  by 
Hoffmann  in  his  scientific  investigations  of  aniline.  To  Ver- 
guin belongs  the  credit  of  the  industrial  creation  of  the  manu- 
facture of  aniline  red.  lie  carried  his  product  and  his  process 
to  Messrs.  Reuard  Bros,  (at  Lyons),  dyers,  who  had  the 
product  and  process  patented. 

"  The  appearance  of  the  red  produced  a  sensation  not  less 
than  that  occasioned  by  the  discovery  of  the  violet  by  Perkins. 
The  price  was  likewise  high,  1,200  francs  the  kilogramme 
($223.20  per  2^  lbs.  avoirdupois),  for  a  product  less  pure  than 
that  which  is  sold  to  day  for $7. 50  (2|-  lbs.)  This  red  had  more 
brilliancy  than  the  violet.  There  was  no  red  that  could  com- 
pare with  it.  Messrs.  Renard  Bros,  gave  to  it  the  name  of 
Fuchsine,  and  it  was  seen  most  in  the  color  called  magenta, 
made  with  this  new  red. 

"Verguin  had  not,  in  his  first  experiment,  used  the  best 
agent  for  the  transformation  of  aniline  into  red ;  and  many 
other  agents,  which,  as  a  general  thing,  gave  more  advanta- 
geous results,  were  soon  discarded  ;  but  all  originated  from  the 
same  chemical  re-actions ;  viz.,  elimination  of  the  hydrogen 
in  the  aniline  and  final  formation  of  a  salt  with  the  same  base, 
the  composition  of  which  Hoffmann  determined  some  time 
afterwards,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  rosaniline^  and  gave 
it  this  formula — CjoHigAzaH.^O. 

"  There   were   numerous  processes,  and  all    the   tribunals 

*  It  is  now  selling  for  two  frunca  per  kilogramme  (two  and  one-lifth  pounds 
avoirdupois.) 

59 


466  THE    AMERICAN   DYEE. 

judged  in  the  same  way.  They  saw  no  novelty  in  substitut- 
ing one  agent  for  another,  re-acting  upon  aniline,  to  arrive  at 
the  same  product ;  so  they  granted  to  Renard  Bros,  the  pro- 
prietorship of  the  aniline  red,  which  they  had  first  manufact- 
ured and  used  industrially. 

"Unfortunately  the  patentees  did  not  understand  sufficient- 
ly that  every  right  imposes  a  duty.  They  allowed  too  great 
a  difierence  to  be  established  between  the  prices  of  their  prod- 
ucts and  those  of  foreign  manufacturers,  and  they  soon  saw 
foreign  competition,  in  defiance  of  their  patents,  invade  the 
French  market.  From  France,  where  the  red  was  discovered 
and  first  manufactured,  it  at  once  spread  into  England  and  into 
Germany  ;  and  instead  of  the  history  of  the  violet  discovered 
being  of  English  origin,  it  soon  became  entirely  French;  the 
red,  discovered  in  France,  seems,  rather,  born  in  Germany 
from  the  great  number  of  factories  Avhich  immediately  sprang 
into  existence  in  that  country  for  the  manufacture  of  this  red, 

"The  red  soon  gave  way  to  a  very  important  manufacture. 
It  soon  served  no  longer  only  for  coloring  in  that  beautiful 
shade,  magenta,  which  every  one  knew,  but  it  became  the 
raw  material  for  all  other  aniline  colors,  —  blues,  violets, 
green,  garnet,  &c. 

"The  red  had  been  scarcely  discovered  two  years  before 
those  two  young  French  chemists,  Girard  and  De  Laire,  dis- 
covered that  it  could  be  transformed  into  a  violet  more  beau- 
tiful even  than  the  Perkins  violet,  and  into  a  magnificent  blue, 
by  heating  it  with  aniline.  These  chemists  brought  their 
process  to  Renard  Bros.,  and  their  blue  replaced,  in  most  of 
their  applications,  the  French  blue  and  the  indigo  carmine. 

"About  the  same  time,  Guinon,  Marnas,  and  Bonnett  man- 
ufactured a  blue  called  azuline,  but  it  could  not  sustain  the 
competition  of  the  aniline  blue. 

"There  could  not,  after  this,  be  any  halting  in  the  path  of 
discoveries.  After  the  blue  came  the  green,  obtained,  like  the 
blue,  from  the  red,  by  way  of  an  unstable  blue  discovered  by 


THE    AMERICAX    DYER.  467 

Charles  Lauth,  who  obtained  it  by  causing  aldehyde  to  re-act 
upon  the  red. 

"This  green  was  found  by  Cherpin,  employed  at  Usebe. 
Cherpin  wished  to  Hx  the  aniline  blue  ot  Charles  Lauth,  which, 
up  to  that  time,  had  no  application  on  account  of  its  instal)il- 
ity.  Acting  upon  the  advice  of  a  photographer  (who  was  a 
friend  of  Cherpin),  who  deemed  the  hj'posulphite  of  soda  the 
universal  fixei\  he  employed  the  hyposulphite  of  soda  to  fix 
the  aldehyde  of  Charles  Lauth,  as  a  photographic  proof  is 
fixed. 

"What  must  his  astonishment  have  been  to  observe  the 
blue  transformed  into  a  green, — a  green  that  was  perfectly 
fast. 

"This  shade  of  green  was  immediately  employed  by  the 
silk-dyers,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  shades  of  green. 
This  green-dye  gives  very  good  results  in  calico-printing,  but 
it  does  not  ajiswer  so  well  for  wool-dyeing.  VYe  have  now 
seen  the  red  transformed  into  violet,  into  blue,  and  into  green. 
Hoflniann  followed  these  discoveries,  and,  by  a  new  process,  he 
made  this  red  underfjo  another  chancre.  He  submitted  it  to 
the  action  of  an  alcoholic  radical,  and  he  obtained  the  violet, 
which  now  bears  his  name. 

"  \\\  the  same  manner  that  Girard  and  De  Laire  obtained 
the  imperial  violet  and  the  blue,  by  substituting  one  or  more 
molecules  of  the  phenyl  radical  (CgHs)  contained  in  aniline, 
for  one  or  more  molecules  of  hydrogen  of  the  rosaniline,  so 
Hoffmann  substituted  the  radicals  of  the  alcohols  (ethyl,  CoH^, 
methyl,  CiHg,  &c.),  in  this  s:ime  rosaniline. 

"At  this  time  we  had  several  violets,  the  Perkins  violets, 
and  those  of  Girard  and  De  Laire.  The  Hoffmann  violet, 
however,  was  none  the  less  welcomed  with  the  greatest  favor, 
it  being  much  more  brilliant  than  its  predecessors. 

"  The  manufacturers  of  the  violets  ascertained  that  in  pre- 
paring the  Hoffmann  violet,  green  was  formed.  This  green 
was  isolated  from  the  violet,  and  the  dyers  of  silk  and  cotton 
abandoned  the  use  of  the  aldehyde  green,  and  used  only  this 


468  THE   AMERICAN   DYEK. 

new  green,  called  iodine  green.  This  green  is  more  beautiful 
than  the  aldehyde  greeu,  but  not  so  permanent  as  the  last 
named.  The  Hoffmann  green  remained  for  a  long  time  at  a 
high  price,  two  hundred  francs  per  kilogramme  ($37.20  per 
two  and  one-fifth  pounds  avoirdupois),  for  which  reason  it  did 
not  come  into  general  use.  Next  came  the  Paris  violet,  and 
through  this  violet,  we  obtain  colors  which  are  no  longer 
obtained  by  means  of  the  red,  but  are  derived  more  directly 
from  aniline. 

"  There  were  great  exertions  made  to  obtain  similar  colors, 
which  should  be  different  in  composition  from  those  obtained 
•with  rosaniline,  and  at  the  same  time  compete  Avith  them  in 
brilliancy  .and  cheapness.  This  is  the  problem  Avhich  Poirrier 
and  Chappat,  Jr.,  have  solved,  by  introducing  the  Paris 
violet:  The  methylaniline- violet,  called  the  Paris  violet,  had 
been  indicated  as  long  ago  as  1861,  by  Lauth.  For  various 
causes,  this  chemist  did  not  follow  out  his  discoveries.  It  was 
in  1865  that  Poirrier  and  Chappat,  Jr.,  with  the  co-operation 
of  their  chemist,  Charles  Bardy,  undertook  to  make  violet 
derived  from  aniline,  into  which  they  should  have  introduced 
previously  an  alcoholic  radical.  The  greatest  difficulty  was 
to  manufacture  industrially  these  alkaloids  from  alcoholic  rad- 
icals, by  a  practical  process,  and  at  a  price  which  should  ena- 
ble them  to  obtain  a  violet  not  costing  more  than  the  Hoff- 
mann violet.  The  process  indicated  and  followed  in  the 
laboratories,  to  obtain  methylaniline  or  eth3laniliue  by  the 
re-action  of  the  alcoholic  iodides,  became  exclusively  dear, 
and  the  process  was  not  practicable  industrially. 

"Here,  again,  industry  came  to  borrow  from  science.  The 
process  indicated  by  Bcrthollett,  for  the  substitution  of  an 
alcpholic  radical  in  ammonia,  by  heating  the  radical,  under 
pressure,  with  chlorhydrate  of  ammonia,  was  applied  to 
aniline. 

"  The  operation  was  delicate  and  dangerous ;  it  required  an 
apparatus  strong  enough  to  resist  a  great  pressure,  and  so 
constructed  that  no  gas  could  escape.     Up  to  this  time  the 


THE    A3IERICAN    DYER.  -109 

use  of  dose  vessels  had  not  been  atloptetl  in  industry.  All 
precautions  were  taken  ;  there  was  no  accident  to  deplore, 
and  after  great  perseverance  and  expense,  the  result  was 
accomplished." 

"  To-day,  even  industr}-  begins  to  employ  this  method  of  closed 
vessels.  It  appropriates  to  itself  the  processes  of  science,  modif)'- 
ing  them  for  its  own  use.  It  is  by  this  process  that  it  has  been 
proposed  to  saponifj'  fat  substances  by  pure  water,  at  a  temperature 
near  200°.  Although  the  immense  pressure  produced  under  these 
circumstances,  has  made  it  necessary"  to  relinquish  the  action  of 
water  upon  fatty  bodies,  used  in  all  its  simplicity,  nevertheless  this 
re-action  has  been  made  to  co-operate  successful!}-  in  the  saponifica- 
tion of  neutral  fatty  substances,  by  employing  at  the  same  time  as 
the  water,  a  small  quantit}'  of  lime,  which  enables  the  operation  to 
proceed  at  a  lower  temperature,  but  alvva3S  with  the  assistance  of 
the  close  vessels. 

"  Messrs.  Poirrier  and  Chappat  were  more  daring,  when  they  ap- 
plied the  method  of  close  vessels  to  the  preparation  of  methylani- 
line,  b}'  the  re-action  of  methylic  alcohol  upon  the  chlorhydrate  of 
aniline,  and  conformablv  to  a  scientific  process  noted  by  Mons. 
Berthollett,  for  the  production  of  organic  alkalies.  The  metliylani- 
line  prepared  by  their  process,  and  the  beautiful  violet  coloring- 
material  which  is  obtained  from  it,  appeared  at  the  Exposition. 
These  first  attempts  may  be  regarded  as  the  prelude  of  discoveries 
which  await  industry  in  a  new  and  fruitful  path." — Extract  from  the 
Report  of  Mons.  Berthollett,  Universal  Exposition  of  1867  :  The 
methods  of  dose  vessels  and  its  ajyplications. 

"  As  we  see,  the  process  of  Messrs.  Poirrier  and  Chappat,  is 
double.  It  comprises  in  one  part,  the  manufacture  of  ethylic  and 
methylic  derivatives  of  aniline  ;  and,  in  the  other,  the  transforma- 
tion of  these  secondarj'  monamines  into  violet  coloring-materials. 
The  method  which  they  have  adopted  for  producing  methylaniline 
and  eth>  laniline,  is  that  which  Mons.  Berthollett  had  indicated  for 
producing,  in  a  general  manner,  the  monamines  from  alcoholic 
radicals.  • 

"  This  is  a  new  example  of  the  passage  of  scientific  methods  into- 
industrial  art ;  and  a  remarkable  circumstance,  of  all  those  methods 
which  had  been  employed  fou  the  preparation  of  methylic  and  ethy- 


470  THE    AMEKICAX   DYER. 

lie  alkalies,  this,  which  seemed  the  least  practical  in  the  laboratory, 
is  the  onlj'  one  which  has  become  industrial." — Extract  from  the  Re- 
port of  A.  W.  Ilofmann,  De  Laire,  and  Charles  Girard:  Coloring 
materials  derived  from  coal.     Universal  Exposition  of  1867. 

Methylaniline  being  obtained,  it  remained  to  choose  the 
most  suitable  agent  for  transforming  it  into  violet :  these 
agents  are  numerous,  but  they  do  not  all  give  good  results. 
Poirrier  and  Chappat,  Jr.,  were  transforming  this  base  into 
violet  by  a  process  original  but  costly,  when  Charles  Lauth 
succeeded  in  replacing  it  advantageously.  From  that  time 
the  JParis  violet  could  be  furnished  at  a  price  quite  low. 

The  following  is  abridged  from  the  report  of  Mons.  Balard, 
in  relation  to  the  discovery  of  new  colors  by  A.  Poirrier  and 
his  chemists  : 

''In  1861  Mons.  Lauth,  by  oxidizing  methylaniline,  ob- 
tained a  new  violet,  the  manufacturing  of  which  he  relin- 
quished, an  account  of  the  great  diflSculty  there  was  in  pre- 
paring the  raw  material.  But  this  study  was  taken  up  by 
Messrs.  Poirrier  and  Chappat,  with  the  assistance  of  their 
chemist,  Mons.  Bardy.  These  chemists  and  manufacturers  of 
these  new  dyes  have  not  only  succeeded  in  making  methy- 
laniline under  conditions  of  extremely  low' cost,  by  imitating 
a  process  which  had  served  Mons.  Berthollett  for  obtaining  the 
alcoholic  ammoniacs  of  Mons.  Hoffmann,  but  they  have  found 
out  how,  by  a  suitable  oxidizing  action,  to  transform  this 
substance  into  a  violet  wholly  new,  into  a  methylaniline  vio- 
let. This  violet,  which  differs  from  the  violet  (in  some  of 
its  properties)  obtained  from  rosaniline,  necessarily  differs 
from  it  in  its  constitution,  it  being  produced  from  the  purest 
aniline  that  industrial  art  can  furnish. 

"In  1861,  to  the  manufacture,  in  large  amounts,  of  the 
product  which  he  had  discovered,  Mons.  Lauth  succeeded  in 
bringing,  in  his  turn,  a  most  useful  means  of  assistance.  By 
causing  the  introduction  of  heat  to  aid  the  oxidizing  action 
of  the  air,  and  of  other  more  energetic  agents  of  oxidization, 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  471 

he  has  been  able  to  produce,  with  one  hundred  parts  of  meth- 
ylaniline,  more  than  forty  parts  of  a  violet,  obtained  under 
the  most  economical  conditions,  and  whose  use  begins  ah'eady 
to  spread  in  Europe  and  America."  [This  report  was  made 
in  1867.] 

NoTK. — Metliylaniline  had  never  been  made,  except  in  the  laboratories, 
and  then  only  by  means  of  the  re-action  of  iodide  of  methyl  npon  aniline, 
as  indicated  by  Iloifmann,  nntil  the  present  process  was  discovered  at 
Poirrier's  cstablislinient.     Even  dimethyhmiline  had  never  been  indicated. 

To-day,  in  most  fai-tories  for  making  these  dyes,  in  all  conntries,  metliy- 
laniline violets  and  {greens  are  produced  by  the  processes  of  Poirrier  and  his 
chemists.  Their  competitors  welcomed  the  connnnnicati(ms  which  unfaith- 
ful chemists  and  overseers,  attached  to  their  (Poirrier's)  house,  made  known 
to  them. — G. 

"This  last  violet  dye  (the  Paris  violet)  gave  shades  which 
were  identical  with  the  Hoffmann  violet,  and  the  product  was 
sold  at  one  hundred  francs  ($18. GO),  while  at  the  same  time 
the  Hoffmann  violet  was  valued  at  two  hundred  francs  ($37.20) 
per  kilo.  (2i  lbs.  avoirdupois).  The  Hoffmann  violet  was  an 
iodhydratc,  insoluble  in  water,  soluble  in  alcohol,  which  in- 
creased the  price  still  higher ;  whereas  the  Paris  violet  was 
soluble  in  water.  The  Paris  violet,  at  its  first  appearance,  was 
not  equal  to  the  Hoffmann  in  brilliancy,  but  it  is  now  used  by 
woolen-dyers  in  preference  to  the  Hoffmann,  as  it  gives  more 
pure  and  clear  shades,  besides  being  more  permanent. 

"A.  Poirrier  is  manufacturing  large  quantities  of  this  violet, 
and  there  are  no  other  firms  who  are  regularly  carrying  on 
the  manufacture  of  this  particular  violet." 

"There  is  another  color  obtained  directly  from  aniline,  but 
it  is  not  what  is  termed  a  product  which  is  prepared  in  the 
factories  of  chemical  products  and  delivered  to  the  dyers  and 
printers,  but  a  color  that  is  applied,  colorless,  upon  the  fabric, 
and,  by  exposure  to  the  atmosphere  and  certain  agents,  it 
develops  itself  upon  the  fabric;  this  is  the  aniliue  black. 

"This  aniline  black  has  been,  up  to  the  present  time,  ex- 
clusively employed  in  printing  upon  cotton.     This  color,  con- 


472  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

trary  to  all  the  others  derived  from  aniline,  resists  completely 
the  action  of  the  light. 

"There  was  at  first  no  process  for  applying  it  to  dyeing, 
Charles  Lauth,  however,  discovered  a  process  whereby  he 
could  render  Lightfoot's  process  of  application,  by  printing, 
practical.  Before  this  improvement,  brought  by  Lauth  to 
Lightfoot's  process,  it  had  not  been  possible  to  make  use  of 
the  black,  as  the  agents  that  Lightfoot  employed  attacked  the 
vegetable  fibre.      (See  page  461.) 

"We  obtain  with  aniline,  either  directly  or  by  passing 
through  the  red,  red  at  first,  then  blue,  violet,  green,  and 
black.  We  obtain,  also,  other  colors,  but  these  are  of  less 
importance  than  the  above  colors  ;  for  instance,  the  grays,  the 
browns,  the  oranges  (which  are  produced  at  the  same  time  as 
the  red,  which  they  tarnish  and  from  which  we  separate  them). 
Some  deep  l»lues  are  obtained,  which  for  some  uses  replace,  in 
a  measure,  indigo. 

Note.  —  All  the  colors  thus  far  are  derived  from  aniline,  but  in  distilling 
the  coal-oil  we  obtain,  besides  the  benzine,  many  other  snbstanccs,  and 
among  them  are  some  which  also  serve  to  generate  colors,  —  such  as  pheuic 
acid,  naphthaline,  and  anthracene. — G. 

"  Phenic  acid  is  a  source  of  several  coloring-materials ;  one 
of  them,  picric  acid,  has  been  known  for  a  long  time.  It 
was  manufactured  long  before  the  appearance  of  aniline 
colors.  (See  article  on  Picric  Acid  in  another  part  of  this 
work.)  Messrs.  Guinon,  Marnas,  and  Bonnett  first  made  it 
and  applied  it  to  the  coloring  of  silk.  It  gave  a  clear  yellow, 
ver}'  brilliant." 

"The  manufacture  of  coloring  materials  derived  from  coal, 
though  in  its  infancy  yet,  has  already  taken  one  of  the  fore- 
most places,  through  the  importance  of  the  transactions  to 
which  it  has  given  rise. 

Note.  — A  business  estimated  at  not  less  than  $11,160,000  per  annum.  — G. 

"More  than  every  other  industry,  it  keeps  the  manufacturer 
of  colors  derived  from  coal   constantly  employed,  either  to 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  473 

perfect  his  processes  or  to  discover  new  ones.  This  business 
proofresses  and  transforms  itself  with  astonishiufr  rajjidity. 

"We  can  judge  of  this  by  what  has  occurred  (hiring  its 
brief  existence  ;  a  product  such  as  seemed  at  one  time  to  defy 
all  competition,  was  afterwards  completely  sujiersedcd  by  a 
product  quite  superior  to  it.  Thus  the  Perkins  violet  was 
only  brought  into  use  in  1859,  and  in  1861  there  appeared 
the  imperial  violet  of  Girard  and  De  Laire. 

"Three  years  scarcely  elapsed  before  the  Hoffmann  violet 
took  the  place  of  the  imperial  violet ;  this  was  succeeded  by 
the  Paris  violet  two  years  afterwards,  whose  introduction 
diminished  the  demand  for  Hoffmann's  violets  to  a  great 
extent. 

"  What  has  come  to  pass  as  to  the  violet,  has  happened  in 
like  manner  to  the  other  colors, — the  green  and  bine.  The 
iodine  green  has  replaced  the  aldehyde  green,  the  soluble  blues 
have  replaced,  in  part,  the  alcoholic  blues,  and  the  consump- 
tion of  the  soluble  blues  is  continually  increasing. 

"The  transformations  are  so  rapid,  that  the  manufacturer 
of  these  colors  has,  we  might  say,  no  certainty  of  the  morrow 
for  the  product  which  he  mahufiictured  yesterday.  Apart 
from  the  discoveries  which  are  born,  and  which  overturn 
anterior  discoveries,  he  is  not  up  to  the  simple  improvements 
which  may  overthrow  his  last-manufactured  color.  And  then, 
in  the  same  color,  there  must  be  varieties  as  numerous  as  the 
consumptions  for  which  they  are  prepared.  Thus,  a  kind 
such  as  is  applied  by  the  calico-printers,  will  not  be  valued 
by  the  dyers.  In  the  same  manner,  silk-dyeing  employs 
another  kind  from  that  of  wool-dyeing;  and  their  demands 
are  so  much  tl^e  more  exacting,  because  success  depends 
upon  the  good  quality  of  the  coloring-materials  emi)loyed  in 
them." 

NoTK.  —  Unless  the  rtyer  has  materials  suflSciently  pure,  lie  cannot,  with 
all  lii.s  skill  and  exi»eiience  in  applying  them,  produce  shades  that  will  have 
the  intensity  and  hrilliaucy  which  is  wanted.  —  u. 
60 


474 


THE    AMEEICAN   DYER. 


Aniline  colors,  besides  being  easily  applied,  have  a  great 
affinit}'  for  textile  fibre,  and  are  generally  applied  to  wool 
without  the  use  of  a  mordatit,  it  being  only  necessary  to  ina- 
merse  the  wool  or  yarn  in  a  solution  of  the  aniline  dye.  By 
giving  the  wool  or  yarn  a  preparation  either  of  bichromate  of 
potash,  alum,  glauber  salts,  or  silicate  of  soda,  we  will  obtain 
a  very  permanent  color  with  these  dyes  (see  Recipes  for  Ani- 
line Colors). 

"The  prices  for  these  dyes  were  formerly  very  high,  but 
to-day  are  very  low.  Formerly,  fuchsine  cost  twelve  hun- 
dred francs  a  kilogramme  (21  lbs.)  ;  it  is  now  sold  at  fifty 
francs  for  the  same  amount,  and  the  quality  at  the  present  day  is 
far  superior  to  what  it  was  then.  The  bichromate  violet,  which 
was  sold  at  one  hundred  and  fifty  francs  in  the  form  of  paste, 
is  now  sold  at  twenty  francs  a  kilogramme  (2^  lbs.).  The 
aniline  itself  from  which  these  dyes  are  made,  and  which  was 
then  valued  at  twenty  francs,  costs  but  five  francs  now  a  kilo- 
gramme." 

"  The  following  table  gives  very  nearly  the  relation  which 
exists  between  the  figures  that  represent  a  given  weight  of 
mineral  coal  (say  one  ton),  arid  that  of  the  aniline  red  which 
can  be  produced  from  it.,  as  well  as  the  relative  quantities  of 
all  the  intermediary  products  :  — 


Coal,  2,200  lbs  : 

Coal-tar,       .          .          .          . 

.     220  lbs. 

Benzine,       .         .         .         . 

2    "    32 

Nitro-benzine, 

2    ''    12 

Aniline,        .          .          .          . 

1    ♦«    14 

Aniline  red, 

0    "      8 

• 

1  -  ?           J 1 

sr. 


(See  a  description  of  these  articles  in  another  part  of  this 
work). 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  475 

PREPARATION     OF     RAW     MATERIALS    DERIVED 

FROM   COAL,  WHICH    ARE    EMPLOYED   IN    THE 

MANUFACTURE  OF  COLORS. 

"  The  coal  is  first  siibniilted  to  distillation  in  uiKlorground 
retorts,  which  are  heated  to  redness  by  a  vertical  flue  placed 
upon  the  upper  part  of  the  retort.  The  gas  is  set  free  at  the 
same  flue  as  the  oleaginous  product,  which  is  deposited  by 
cooling,  and  drains  into  large  vats.  The  gas  pursues  its  way 
in  the  flues,  and  after  purification,  enters  the  reservoirs,  from 
which  it  is  distributed  for  illuminating  purposes. 

"The  oleaginous  product  is  the  tar,  which  is  produced  in 
large  quantities,  and  still,  to-day,  encumbers  certain  manu- 
factories that  do  not  distil  it.  Coal-tar  contains  a  number  of 
chemical  products,  which  are  separated  by  distillation,  and 
by  appropriate  treatment. 

"Amono-  them  we  shall  cite  only  those  which  interest  us, 
and  which  are  utilized  for  the  production  of  colors,  which  are 
the  following :  — 

Benzine  (C.U,).  '  Toluene  (C^H^). 

Xylene  (CgHio).  Anthracene  (C14H10). 

Naphthaline  Aniline  (CgHjAg). 

Phenic,  or  carbolic  acid  (CgHgO). 

Benzine  —  Toluene  —  Xylene. 

"The  product  sold  in  commerce  under  the  name  of  benzine, 
is  nearly  always  a  mixture  of  benzine,  toluene,  and  xylene, 
and  it  is  this  mixture,  in  variable  proportions,  or  at  least  a 
mixture  of  benzine  and  toluene,  which  is  generally  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  colors. 

"Benzine,  in  the  state  of  purity,  is  a  colorless  volatile  oil, 
boiling  at  the  temperature  of  80°.  It  is  less  dense  than 
water  (its  density  being  0.850),  and  very  inflammable,  and 
when  on  fire,  cannot  be  extinguished  with  water,  as  it  will 
swim  on  the  surface.     It  becomes  solid  at  zero.     It  was  dis- 


476  THE   AMERICAX   DYEK. 

covered  in  1825,  by  Faraday.  Dr.  Hoffmann  noted  its  ex- 
istence in  coal-tar  in  1845.  To  separate  the  ijenzine  from 
the  varions  products  with  which  it  is  mingled  in  the  coal-tar, 
they  proceed,  as  we  have  said,  by  distillation,  separating  the 
light  products ;  that  is  to  say,  those  which  are  less  dense  than 
water,  from  the  heavy  products. 

"They  re-distil  several  times  these  light  products,  after 
having  treated  them  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  they  have  then 
a  limpid,  colorless  oil,  which  contains  a  mixture  of  benzine, 
toluene,  xylene,  &c.  By  fractional  and  repeated  distillations, 
or  by  a  single  distillation  in  an  apparatus  suitably  arranged, 
they  separate  these  various  substances.  That  which  ])asses 
over  at  the  lowest  temperature,  is  the  benzine,  which  boils  at 
80°,  then  the  toluene  at  110°,  the  xylene  at  130°."  (It  was 
Mansfield  that  pointed  out  the  existence  of  toluene  in  coal- 
tar,  in  1847  ;  its  density  is  about  0.840.)  "  Although  toluene 
resembles  benzine,  it  differs  from  it  in  several  of  its  proper- 
ties. Toluene  is  found  in  balsam  of  tolu.  If  the  balsam  is 
distilled  to  dryness,  the  distillation  give  a  mixture  of  benzoic 
ether  and  of  toluene. 

"Xylene  was  found  by  Cahours,  in  1850,  in  the  oil  which 
is  separated  from  raw  wood  spirit,  by  the  addition  of  water. 
It  plays  a  much  less  important  part  than  benzine  and  toluene 
in  the  formations  of  colors  ;  we  will,  therefore,  no  longer  dwell 
upon  it. 

"  Nitio-benzine  :  The  product  sold  under  this  name  is  almost 
always  a  mixture  of  nitro-benzine  and  nitro-toluene.  It  was 
discovered  in  1833,  by  Mitscherlich.  It  is  an  oily  liquid,  of 
a  light  amber  color ;  its  odor  is  that  of  the  essence  of  bitter 
almonds.  It  solidifies  at  3°  below  zero.  It  boils  at  213°. 
Its  density  is  1.209.     It  is  inflammable. 

"Nitro-toluene  has  many  of  the  physical  properties  of  nitro- 
benzine.     It  boils  at  225°,  and  its  density  is  1.180. 

"Nitro-benzine  and  nitro-toluene  are  obtained  by  causing 
fuming  nitric' acid  to  re-act  upon  the  two  hydrocarbonatcs. 

"This  operation  is  not  always  without  danger;  and  at  the 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  477 

commencement  of  using  these  substances  to  attain  dyes,  there 
were  numerous  accidents  and  explosions,  accompanied  with 
contlairrations  occasionally. 

"When  these  substances  were  first  manufactured,  it  was 
done  in  glass  vessels,  next  in  stone,  but  now  in  iron  ves- 
sels. In  an  iron  apparatus  of  a  cylindrical  form,  with  a 
capacity  of  two  hundred  and  twenty  to  three  hundred  and 
thirty  gallons,  ihey  introduce  first  the  whole  quantity  of  ben- 
zine that  they  wish  to  transform  ;  then  they  set  in  motion  an 
agitator  with  which  the  apparatus  is  provided,  and  cause  a  , 
mixture  of  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids  to  enter  by  a  tube 
arranged  for  that  purpose.  The  agitator  is  kept  constantly 
in  motion,  so  that  the  mixture  of  acid  may  come  in  contact 
with  the  whole  mass,  until  it  is  all  liquefied. 

"They  moderate  the  re-action,  or  render  it  active,  either 
by  applying  cold  water  upon  the  walls  of  the  apparatus,  or  by 
sendins  steam  into  a  covering  which  surrounds  it.  When  the 
operation  is  ended,  they  liquefy  the  product,  which  separates 
into  two  strata ;  the  one  oily,  which  is  the  nitro-benzine  ; 
the  other  is  an  acid  mixture,  weakened. 

"The  nitro-benzine  has  to  be  washed  thoroughly  with  water, 
then  with  a  small  quantity  of  soda  in  the  water,  in  order  to 
neutralize  the  acid." 

Aniline  —  Toluidine. 

"  These  are  the  last  products  secured  preparatory  to  ol)tain- 
ing  most  of  the  so-called  aniline  dyes  or  colors.  The  product 
sold  by  the  name  of  aniline,  is,  generally  speaking,  a  mixture 
of  aniline  and  toluidine." 

Aniline  was  discovered  in  1820,  by  Unverdorben.*  In 
1833,  Runge  discovered  that  aniline  yielded,  when  brought 
into  contact  with  a  solution  of  bleaching  powder  (hypochlorate 
of  lime),  a  very  beautiful  violet  color,  hence  the  name  kyanol 
{blue  coloring  oil). 

*  Unverdorben  first  discovered  it  among  the  products  of  the  tlry  distilla- 
tion of  iudij^o. — G. 


478  THE   AMERICAX    DYER. 

"Range  also  discovered,  in  1834,  the  existence  of  aniline 
already  formed  in  coal-tar.  Later,  Hoffmann  indicated  proc- 
esses for  effecting  its  separation  from  coal-tar ;  but,  unfortu- 
nately, it  was  obtained  in  this  way  in  small  quantities.  It  was 
Zinin  who  first  discovered  that  nitro-benzine*  could  be  trans- 
formed into  aniline  ;  and,  later,  Bechamp,  perfecting  Zinin's 
process  of  transforming,  endowed  industry  with  a  practical 
process,  just  at  the  moment  of  the  birth  of  the  aniline  colors, 
in  1859  ;  a  process  which  has  contributed  not  a  little  to  the 
great  development  which  that  industry  at  once  received. 

"Aniline  is  an  oily  product,  slightly  colored,  and  boils  at 
182^.  It  has  a  very  strong  aromatic  odor,  and  is  also  a  very 
energetic  poison.  It  combines  with  acids,  forming  salts, 
which  generally  are  soluble  in  water.    Its  density  is  1.028. 

"Toluidine  is  obtained  like  aniline,  but  by  the  reduction  of 
nitro-tolucne.  It  boils  at  198°.  Its  density  is  about  1.012. 
It  is  solid  at  the  ordinary  temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  but 
it  is  nearly  always  mixed  with  pseudo-toluidine ;  and,  in  this 
case,  it  crystallizes  only  at  a  temperature  below  zero,  sepa- 
rating itself  from  the  pseudo-toluidine.  Pseudo-toluidine  (a 
body  isomeric  with  toluidine)  was  discovered  by  Rosenstiehl. 
It  is  always  formed  at  the  same  time  as  toluidine.  Its  boil- 
ing-point is  the  same  as  toluidine ;  many  of  their  properties 
are  common  to  both  ;  but  Rosenstiehl  very  skilfully  succeeded 
in  finding  the  re-actions  which  serve  to  characterize  them ; 
also  the  method  of  separating  them.  He  has  likewise  indi- 
cated the  part  which  each  of  these  alkaloids  plays  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  aniline  red. 

"Aniline,  which  was  formerly  prepared  in  a  small  appara- 
tus, is  to-day  made  in  a  large  cast-iron  cylinder,  very  nearly 
of  the  same  shape  and  capacity  as  that  used  for  the  manu- 

*  In  the  year  1842,  Zinin  found  that  when  nitro-benzine  was  treated  Avith 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  there  was  formed  a  base,  which  he  termed  benzi- 
dam.  The  further  researches  of  Erdmann,  brought  the  fact  to  light,  that 
Uuderdorben's  kyanol,  beuzidom,  and  aniline,  were  the  same  substance,  to 
which  the  name  of  aniline  was  then  liually  given. — G. 


THE    AMERICAIT   DYER.  479 

fjictiire  of  nitro-benzine,  and  likewise  provided  witii  an  agi- 
tator (mixer).  They  pour  in  at  first  some  very  wrak  aeetic 
acid  ;  they  set  tlie  agitator  in  motion,  then  they  add  a.  certain 
quantity  of  pulverized  cast-iron,  and  all  the  nitro-benzine  that 
they  wish  to  transform. 

"A  lively  re-action  sets  in;  the  vapors  condense  into  a 
re-distiller,  placed  above  the  apparatus  and  in  communication 
Avith  it,  and  fall  back  into  it  continually  ;  they  add,  little  by 
little,  new  quantities  of  iron. 

"  When  the  nitro-benzine  is  transformed  into  aniline,  as 
soon  as  they  discover  this,  they  draw  out  some  of  the 
liquid  product,  and  if  it  entirely  dissolves  in  muriatic  acid, 
they  then  inject  steam  into  the  mass  ;  and,  in  this  manner, 
they  cany  away  the  aniline  from  it.  They  then  submit  this 
to  a  new  distillation,  and  in  this  state  it  is  employed  for  the 
manufacture  of  colors." 

Methylaniline  —  Ethylaniline. 

"  These  bases  are  compound  anilines,  that  is  to  say,  ani- 
lines in  which  a  molecule  of  ethyl  or  of  methyl  has  been  sub- 
stituted for  a  molecule  of  the  aniline.*  They  are  oily  liquids, 
with  a  slight  yellow  color,  and  boil  at  a  higher  temperature 
than  that  of  aniline.  These  bases  are  ob  ained  in  the  factory 
of  A.  Poirrier,  by  a  process  original  with  him.  Into  an  appa- 
ratus capable  of  sustaining  a  high  pressure,  they  introduce  a 
salt  of  aniline,  the  chlorhydrate,  and  the  alcohol  whose  radi- 
cal they  wish  to  obtain  ;  they  close  the  apparatus  hermeti- 
cally, and  then  apply  heat  for  some  hours  at  difierent  temper- 
atures, according  to  the  nature  of  the  alcohol  and  its  boiling- 
point,  perhaps  from  225°  to  250°,  and  even  300°. 

"  When  the  operation  is  ended,  they  let  the  apparatus  cool, 
then  draw  ofl'  the  liquid  ;  they  have  the  chlorhydrate  of  the 
base,  which  they  decompose  by  the  addition  of  certain  quan- 
tities of  lime  ;  they  distil  the  whole  over  an  open  fire  ;  they 

*  Hofliuiinu  was  the  first  to  make  these  substitutions. — CJ. 


480  THE    AMEKICAX    DYER. 

separate  tlie  oily  layer,  and  re-distil  it  again,  separating  the 
parts  which  flow  over  at  a  temperature  between  11)0°  and 
210°,  if  it  is  methyl  aniline  which  they  are  ol)taining,  and*  it 
is  these  parts  which  are  used  for  transformation  into  colors. 
By  the  addition  of  bichloride  of  anhydrous  tin,  the  methylan- 
iline  becomes -at  once  a  beautiful  blue-violet  color. 

PiiExic  Acid  —  NAPn-niALixE  —  Anthracene. 

"Calvert  was  one  of  the  first  chemists  who  olitained  phenic 
acid,  industrially,  in  a  state  of  remarkable  purity.  Phenic 
acid  is  a  solid,  crystallized  substance,  and  is  colorless.*  It 
has  the  odor  of  smoke.  It  has  a  caustic  and  burning  taste. 
Its  density  is  about  1.065.  It  is  much  employed  at  the  pres- 
ent day  in  pharmacy. 

"To  obtain  it,  it  is  necessary  to  collect  the  parts  which  boil 
over  between  160°  and  190°,  when  coal-tar  is  distilled. 
They  then  treat  these  with  a  lye  of  soda,  quite  weak.  They 
thus  obtain  })henate  of  soda,  which  they  decompose  by  sul- 
phuric acid.  They  then  submit  it  again  to  distillation,  and 
the  oily  product,  after  having  separated  the  heavier  products 
from  the  lighter  ones,  is  the  pure  phenic  acid,  which  easily 
crystallizes. 

"  Naphthaline  f  is  a  solid,  colorless,  and  crystallized  product, 
having  a  strong  odor  of  coalrtar.     It  boils  at  220°." 

"It  is  found  in  large  quantities  in  the  light  oils  of  the  dis- 
tillation of  the  tar,  after  they  have  separated  from  the  phenic 
acid.  They  have  them  in  a  solid  mass,  which  they  submit  to 
the  action  of  a  press  ;  the  product  thus  pressed  out,  is  sub- 
mitted to  sublimation,  and  the  naphthaline  thus  obtained  is 
quite  pure  ;  although  its  boiling  point  is  very  high,  it  sub- 
limes easily." 

*  It  becomes  slightly  reddened  by  exposure  to  the  atmosphere.  It  fuses 
at  34^^,  ami  boils  at  about  180'^. — G. 

t  This  Jiiateriiil  wan  •discovered  iu  1820  by  Garden,  in  coal-tar,  and  was 
afterwards  the  subject  of  close  research  by  Fara<lay,  Hoffmann,  Ballo,  and 
others.  According  to  Berthollett,  it  may  be  prepared  by  substituting  for  two 
atoms  of  hydrogen  of  the  benzole,  two  atoms  of  acetylene. — G. 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  481 

"  NaphtliJiline,  when  treated  with  nitric  acid,  is  transformed 
into  nitro-naphthnlinc  (CiulI^NO.j),  which,  when  rechiccd  like 
nitro-bciizine,  is  transformed  into  naphtylamine,  a  base  analo- 
gons  with  aniline." 

"Anthracene*  is  obtained  by  the  process  of  Broenner,  by 
submitting  in  a  retort,  either  the  resin  of  coal-tar  or  asphalt, 
to  the  action  of  superheated  steam.  When  they  distil  the 
light  oil  of  coal-tar,  there  remains  at  the  end  of  the  distilla- 
tion a  glutinous  product,  of  an  orange  color,  which  contains 
nmch  anthracene." 

"  In  the  foregoing  remarks  we  have  shown  how  they  obtain 
tar  from  coal,  the  various  products  which  they  extract  from 
this  tar,  the  transformations  which  they  caused  certain  of 
these  products  to  undergo, — the  benzine  into  nitr()-benzine,and 
this  last  into  aniline,  this  into  methyaniline  and  into  diphenyl- 
amine,  &c.  It  only  remains  further  for  us  to  describe  the 
method  of  obtaining  the  aniline  colors  from  these  products." 

*  This  material  was  discovered  in  1831  by  J.  Dumas,  and  was  first  em- 
ployed by  Graebe  and  Liebermanu  in  18()9,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
anthracene  red  or  artiticial  alizarine. — G. 

61 


482  THE    AMEKICAX    DYER. 


PREPAEATIO:Nr 


VARIOUS  COLORS  DERIVED   FROM  ANILINE. 


Aniline  Violet,  Mauveine,  Rosolane,  Ljdisine. 

"  The  Perkins  violet,  to  which  the  inventor  gave  the  name  of 
mauveine,  in  the  form  of  a  base,  is  also  known  by  the  name 
of  Rosalane,  Indisine,  &c.,  names  which  have  been  given  by 
different  manufacturers. 

"Mauveine  or  violet  is,  as  we  have  said,  the  first  color  ob- 
tained industrially,  and  derived  from  aniline.  This  is  a  red- 
violet,  less  brilliant  than  the  other  violets  which  have  been 
discovered  since,  but  which  has  the  advantage  of  being  more 
solid  in  appearance.  This  dye  can  be  obtained  in  the  form  of 
crystals  of  a  fine  brilliant  green  color,  but  it  is  generally 
found  in  the  market  in  the  form  of  paste. 

"This  violet  is  obtained  by  mixing  cold,  or  nearly  cold 
solutions  of  sulphate  or  chlorhydrate  of  aniline,  and  of  bichro- 
mate of  potash,  equivalent  for  equivalent.  As  the  process  of 
mixing  the  two  liquids  goes  on,  a  black  precipitate  forms, 
and  the  temperature  rises.  They  leave  the  solutions  in  con- 
tact for  some  time,  perhaps  twenty-four  hours  ;  then  they 
wash  the  precipitate  thoroughly  in  cold  water,  to  take  away 
the  salts  which  might  impede  solution.  The  black  product 
being  washed,  they  treat  it  with  thirty  or  forty  times  its 
weight  of  boiling  water  ;  they  stop  the  ebullition  at  the  end  of 
a  certain  time,  perhaps  one  hour;  then  the  black  mass  de- 


THE    AMERICAX   DYER.  483 

posits,  and  the  liquor  is  strongly  colored  violet  ;  they  then 
tilter  so  as  to  separate  the  impurities  which  nii^iht  reinaiii  in 
sus('ension,  and  they  add  to  the  tiltered  liquid  a  certain  quan- 
tity of  marine  salt  (common  salt)  ;  this  causes  the  violet  dye 
to  precipitate  in  a  flaky  form;  they  filter  again  ;  a  water  en- 
tirely colorless  passes  through,  and  the  coloring  material 
remains  npon  the  filter. 

"  Perkins,  in  his  patent,  recommended  the  purification  of  the 
black  mass  by  benzine,  then  drainage  with  warm  ak-ohol.  This 
mode  of  treatment,  which  is  yet  partia-lly  followed  by  certain 
manufacturers,  requires  the  use  of  very  costly  apparatus,  and 
has  likewise,  the  inconvenience  of  giving  less  pure  products, 
and  they  are  obliged  to  re-dissolve  them  in  water  to  get  the 
purity  they  desire. 

"On  the  nature  of  the  aniline,  and  on  the  temperature  at 
which  the  operation  is  carried  on,  depends  the  success  of 
producing  violet  dyes,  and  it  demands  the  greatest  care  to 
produce  them,  for  the  amount  of  product  varies  very  quickly, 
to  the  extent  of  over  or  double  itself." 

NoTK. — The  so-oallod  violet  imperijil  obtained  by  Girard  and  De  Laire,bvthe 
action  ofliiclnoniate  of  potash  upon  a  mixture  of  aniline  oil  and  liydrochloi- 
ate  of  rosaniliue,  dilieis  from  the  above  product. — G. 

Aniline    Eed,  Rosaniline    (C20H19AZ3H2O),    Fuchsine, 
RosEiNE,  Magenta. 

"Aniline  red,  like  the  Perkins  violet,  Is  sold  under  various 
names.  It  was  Renard  Brothers  who  gave  it  the  name  of 
fuchsine,  from  the  German  name  fuchs,  which  means  Renard 
(English,  fox).  Aniline  red,  which  is  a  colorless  l)ase,  desig- 
nated l)y  Hoffmann  under  the  name  of  Romniline,  is  generally 
delivered  to  the  consumer  in  crystals  of  a  fine  brilliant  green 
color,  which  gives  a  magnificent  red  solution  in  alcohol,  or 
warm  water.  The  coloring-power  of  this  material,  li4ve  all 
Other  aniline  dyes,  is  immense. 

"With  two  and  one-fifth  pounds  of  aniline  red,  we    can 


4  8 J:  THE    AMEKICAX    DYER. 

color  from  twelve  to  fifteen  pieces  of  merino  (according  to 
shade  desired),  or  from  1,094  to  1,307  yards." 

XoTE. — Veif^nin  obtained  aniline  red  by  cansing  the  bichloride  of  anhydrous 
tin  to  re-act  upon  aniline.  The  red  was  very  handsome,  but  he  made  very 
little  of  it.  After  awhile  he  employed  other  agents,  which  gave  better  results 
in  respect  to  the  amount  of  dye  obtained  ;  yet  he  did  not  obtain  it  in  such  a 
state  of  purity,  or  at  so  low  a  cost,  as  it  is  by  Poirrier's  process. — G. 

"  Arsenic  acid  was  and  is  still  employed  almost  exclusively  ; 
yet  it  leaves  much  to  desire  in  respect  even  to  amount  of 
product  obtained,  for  by  the  use  of  this  acid  there  is  more  of 
the  violet,  the  yellow,  and  the  brown  coloring-materials 
obtained,  than  there  is  of  the  reds.  It  is,  moreover,  a  poison- 
ous agent,  whose  use  requires  the  greatest  precautions,  iu 
order  to  avoid  all  accidents.  Several  attempts  have  been 
made  to  replace  it  with  other  agents,  and,  to  a  certain  extent, 
with  some  success.  No  doubt,  the  time  is  not  far  distant 
when  we  shall  arrive  at  results  which  will  be  entirely  success- 
ful and  satisfactory. 

"At  the  commencement  of  the  manufacture  of  aniline  reds, 
small  quantities  at  a  time  were  operated  upon  (from  eleven  to 
twenty-two  pounds  of  aniline).  To-day,  large  quantities  are 
treated  in  a  single  apparatus.  Into  a  cast-iron  retort  of  a 
capacity  of  about  four  hundred  and  forty  gallons,  they  put  — 

1,100  lbs.  of  aniline, 

1,650  lbs.  of  arsenic  acid  (75  per  cent.). 

"  They  apply  heat,  and  constantly  agitate  the  mass  by  means 
of  paddles  fixed  in  an  iron  shaft,  wTiich  traverses  the  retort 
from  axle  to  axle.  Water  and  aniline  are  distilled  and  con- 
densed in  a  worm,  which  is  in  communication  with  the  retort. 
At  the  end  of  some  hours  the  operation  is  finished.  Comple- 
tion is  recognized  when,  on  drawing  out  a  portion  or  sample 
of  the*  mass,  they  have  a  product,  which,  upon  cooling,  be- 
comes hard,  and  whose  fracture  is  brilliant.  They  then  draw 
the  fire,  and  cause  a  jet  of  boiling  water  to  enter  the  retort. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  485 

The  aniline  attached  is  drawn  off.  The  liquid  mass  is  then 
conducted,  by  means  of  pipes,  into  an  apparatus  of  great 
capacity,  also  provided  with  a  number  of  agitators  or  mixers. 

"The  product,  which  is  kept  boiling  for  some  hours  in  a 
large  amount  of  water,  becomes  dissolved  in  it.  They  then 
add  carbonate  of  lime,  which  takes  up  the  arsenic  acid,  form- 
ing an  ijisoluble  salt.  Then  they  let  the  contents  of  the  ves- 
sels remain  awhile  undisturbed.  The  solid  or  resinous 
matters  are  deposited,  and  they  tilter  the  liquid  into  large  vats. 
By  cooling,  the  aniline  red  is  deposited  upon  the  walls  of  the 
vessel  in  the  form  of  brilliant  green  crystals.  There  is  noth- 
ing more  to  be  done  except  to  collect  these  crystals  and  dry 
them. 

"  The  quantity  of  red  thus  obtained  varies  with  the  compo- 
sition of  the  anliline  set  to  work ;  that  is  to  say,  accordino-  as 
the  aniline  contains  more  or  less  aniline,  toluidine,  or  pseudo- 
toluidine. 

"  We  have  said  that  aniline  red  was  the  salt  of  a  colorless 
base,  which  is  called  rosaniline.  For  the  transformations  into 
blue,  violet,  green,  &c.,  rosaniline  is  often  used  instead  of  the 
salts.  We  ought  then  to  tell  how  it  is  prepared.  To  a  boil- 
ing dilute  solution  of  quite  pure  aniline  red,  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  add  the  quantity  of  soda  requisite  to  decompose  the 
salt.  Ebullition  is  maintained  for  some  time,  and,  by  cool- 
ing, is  deposited  a  beautiful  white  crystalline  powder,  which 
is  the  rosaniline." 


ANILINE  BLUE  (TRIPHEXYLIC  ROSANILINE,  C^,U,, 
AZ3H2O)  —  IMPERIAL  VIOLET  —  SOLUBLE  ANI- 
LINE BLUE. 

"Aniline  blue,  discovered  by  Girard  and  De  Laire,  is  a 
product  in  the  form  of  a  powder,  of  a  bronze  ai)pearance,  but 
sometimes  of  a  deep  blue  color;  it  dissolves  in  alcohol,  in 
wood    spirits,  and   gives    upon    tissues   very  striking  blues. 


486  THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 

They  color  with  this  aniline,  by  using  an  acid,  or  else  a  mor- 
dant* ;  hut  without  the  use  of  these  agents,  a  dull  gray  is 
obtained,  or  at  the  best  a  violet  instead  of  a  blue." 

"Imperial  violet,  which  is  a  product  of  the  same  nature  as 
the  blue,  only  less  phenylated,  acts  as  a  dye  in  the  same 
manner." 

Note. — Nicholson  found  that  tlio  aniline  blue  would  combine  with  sulphuric 
acid,  the  same  as  indigo  would,  an<l  in  consequence  it  became  soluble  in 
water  ;  thus  originated  the  soluble  blue,  so  called. — G. 

"The  soluble  blue  is  employed  with  success,  especially  by 
following  a  particular  method  of  application,  which  gives 
good  results,  dyeing  in  a  neutral  bath,  and  raising  or  height- 
ening the  color  in  an  acid  hath."     (See  Recipes  for  Blues.) 

To  obtain  this  blue,  into  an  enamelled  cast-iron  retort, 
furnished  with  agitators,  they  put — 

11  lbs,  salt  of  rosaniliue  (or  the  acetate), 
3o  lbs.  light  aniline. 

They  heat  the  mass  ,to  180°.  It  at  first  passes  into  violet, 
then  into  blue.  They  stop  the  operation,  when,  in  drawing 
off  a  sample  of  the  mass,  they  obtain  in  alcohol  a  solution  of 
pure  blue.  The  product  is  then  turned  into  a  vessel  contain- 
ing pure  or  diluted  muriatic  acid,  which  takes  up  the  aniline 
that  may  be  in  excess ;  the  blue  precipitates.  They  then 
separate  it  by  filtering,  and  washing  it  in  boiling  water:  then 
they  pulverize  and  dry  it.  If  they  wish  blues  of  a  very  pure 
shade,  they  add  to  the  ordinary  handsome  blue,  some  parts 
of  alcohol.  The  reddish  blue,  being  the  most  soluble,  dis- 
solves, while  the  green-blue  remains,  which  they  collect  by 
filtration. 

"Imperial  violet  is  obtained  exactly  as  the  imperial  blue  is, 
only  they  stop  the  operation  much  sooner.     They  ascertain 

*  The  best  mordant  we  ever  used  (for  fastness),  was  chrome,  alum,  aud 
sulphate  of  soda,  for  wool,  but  fur  cottou-yarn,  silicate  of  soda. — G. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  487 

the  point  where   it  is   necessary  to  stop,   by  drawing  ofl'  a 
sample  from  time  to  time,  and  dissolving  it  in  alcohol. ° 

"To  render  the  blue  solnble,  they  take  one  part  of  blue, 
and  fonr  to  six  parts  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid.  They 
heat  the  whole  to  a  temi)oratine  which  ought  not  to  exceed 
150°.  They  know  that  the  blue  is  soluble,  when,  on  drawing 
off  a  small  sample,  it  dissolves  in  pure  or  slightly  alkaline 
water.  They  then  free  it  from  excess  of  acid,  by  repeated 
washings  in  small  quantities  of  water,  and  by  the  final  addi- 
tion of  an  alkali  to  neutralize  it." 


HOFFMANN  VIOLETS. 

MONOETHYLIC    RoSANILINE    (C.,,H,,Az^U,0) ,    Red    SiIADE. 
DiETHYLIC    ROSANILINE    {C,,U,,Az,U,0) ,    MeDIUM    ShaDE. 

Triethylic  Rosaniline   (C,,U,,Az,U,0),  Blue  Shade. 

Iodine  Green  (C^sHgiAzgL.H^O).* 
"  Hoffmann  violet,  which  was  discovered  by  the  learned  pro- 
fessor whose  name  it  bears,  differs  from  the  imperial  violet, 
in  that  the  latter  is  a  phenylic  rosaniline,  while  the  Hoffmann 
is  a  methylic  or  ethylic  rosaniline ;  only,  in  substituting  ethy- 
lic  or  methylic  they  never  obtain  blue,  but  a  very  blue"violet, 
and  some  green.  Hoffmann  violet,  in  its  pure  state,  presents' 
a  brilliant  green  mass,  which,  excepting  the  iodhydrate  con- 
tained in  it,  and  soluble  only  in  alcohol,  dissolves  in  water 
into  a  brilliant  green  mass. 

"They  prepare  it  in  a  closed  apparatus,  or  an  arrangement 
for  re-distillation.  If  they  operate  in  a  close  vessel,  they 
have  an  enamelled  digester  with  a  double  bottom,  which  they 
heat  by  steam,  or  in  an  oil-bath. 

*  Hoffmann's  and  Charles  Girard's.— g. 


488  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

They  put  in«— 

5  kilofframmes  rosaniline=:ll  lbs.  av. 
26  "  alcohol  or  wood  spirits =55  lbs.  av. 

12  to  15  "  iodide  of  ethyl  or  of  methyl=24  or 

30  lbs.  av. 

"They  heat  this  mixture  for  three  hours,  to  about  100°.  If 
they  have  used  iodide  of  methyl,  green  is  formed  at  the  same 
time  as  violet.  They  separate  them  by  taking  the  mass  pre- 
viously freed  from  excess  of  iodides,  and  boiling  it  in  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  water. 

"When  the  liquor  is  cooled  they  filter  it;  the  green  is  in 
solution,  and  the  violet,  which  is  in  the  form  of  iodhydrate, 
is  precipitated  ;  they  separate  by  the  addition  of  a  small  quan- 
tity of  alkali ;  the  little  violet  which  might  yet  be  in  solution 
they  filter  again,  and  they  precipitate  the  green  by  the  addi- 
tion of  a  solution  of  picric  acid  ;  the  green  is  now  in  a  flakey 
form.  They  collect  this  green  upon  a  filter.  The  Hoft'mann 
violet,  freed  thus  from  green,  is  treated  by  a  lye  of  soda  in  a 
state  of  ebullition.  The  soda  takes  up  the  iodine,  and  forms 
iodide  of  sodium  (which  they  afterwards  decompose  in  order 
to  recover  the  iodine),  and  they  have  the  violet  in  the  form 
of  a  colorless  base.  This  base  is  treated  with  a  quantity  of 
muriatic  acid  necessary  to  form  a  neutral  salt,  and  they  have 
a  product  entirely  soluble  in  water. 

"If  in  place  of  the  iodide  of  methyl,  they  use  the  iodide 
of  ethyl,  but  little  green  is  formed,  and  the  whole  mass  is 
then  treated  according  to  the  process  already  described  for 
the  Hoffmann  violet,  when  it  has  been  freed  from  the  green 
formed  by  the  use  of  the  iodide  of  methyl." 

Aldehyde  Green. 
"This  green,  as  well  as  the  iodide  green,  the  Hoffmann  vio- 
let, the  blue,  and  the  imperial  violet,  is  obtained  from  aniline 
red.   '  At  first  they  transform  the  red  into  a  peculiar  blue,  by 
the  action  of  aldehyde.     They  take   one  part  of  aniline  red, 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  489 

dissolved  in  a  mixture  of  two  parts  of  sulphuric  acid,  and 
two  parts  of  water.  This  mass  becomes  warm.  "When  it  has 
cooled  they  add,  little  hy  little,  two  parts  of  aldehyde,  and 
leave  it  in  contact  with  the  rest.  They  draw,  from  time  to 
time,  small  samples,  which  they  dissolve  in  water;  when  they 
obtain  a  solution  of  pure  blue,  they  turn  the  whole  into  about 
eighty-eight  gallons  of  boiling  water,  which  has  in  the  solu- 
tion two  and  one-fifth  pounds  of  hyposulphite  of  soda.  They 
stir  the  whole,  then  they  filter  it ;  the  filtrated  liquid  con- 
tains the  green.  They  use  this  filtered  solution  for  coloring, 
or  else  they  precipitate  the  coloring-matter  in  the  form  of 
paste,  either  with  tannin  or  by  the  acetate  of  soda." 

It  is  in  the  form  of  a  paste  that  this  green  dye  is  generally 
sold. 


COLORS    DERIVED    FROM    COMPOUNDED    ANI- 
LINES. 

Paris  Violet. 

"The  Paris  violet  is  ofiered,  like  the  HofTmann  violet,  in  the 
form  of  a  green  mass,  brilliant,  soluble  in  warm  water,  and 
even  in  cold  water.  They  obtain  with  the  Paris  violet,  as 
well  as  the  Hoflmann  violet,  various  shades,  from  the  very 
reddest  violet  to  the  very  bluest  violet. 

"They  obtain  the  Paris  violet  by  oxidizing  a  compounded 
aniline,  containing  the  radical  of  an  alcohol,  or  the  radicals 
of  different  alcohols ;  they  use  generally  methylaniline  or 
dimethylaniline.  The  methylaniline  easily  becomes  violet 
color."     Here  is  one  process,  which  gives  good  results  : 

Into  an  enamelled  cast-iron  digester,  of  the  capacity  of 
fifty-five  gallons,  placed  in  a  wet  bath,  they  put 

50  kilogrammes  of  methylaniline=:110  lbs.  av. 
40  ♦♦  of  chlorate  of  potash=88  lbs.  av. 

10  "  of  iodiue=:22  lbs.  av. 

62 


490  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

Chlorate  of  potash  and  iodine  are  added  by  degrees,  for 
the  space  of  some  hours. 

"When  the  first  portion  of  iodine  and  chlorate  has  been  put 
in,  the  mixture  is  heated  to  between  80°  and  100°,  and  this 
tem})erature  is  kept  up  for  four  or  five  days,  until  they 
obtain  a  hard  mass  of  a  fine  bronzed  green.  They  treat  this 
mass  with  a  lye  of  soda ;  the  chlorate  in  excess  dissolves  and 
the  iodine  combines  with  the  soda.  The  violet,  which  is  in 
the  form  of  a  base,  is  precipitated  in  a  deep  brown  mass  ;  they 
treat  this  mass  with  boiling  water  to  take  away  the  traces  of 
iodide  of  sodium  ;  then  they  take  it  up  again  with  a  certain 
amount  of  boiling  water,  which  contains  the  necessary  quan- 
tity of  muriatic  acid  for  forming  a  neutral  salt  with  the  base; 
they  then  have  a  bath  strongly  charged  with  violet ;  they  fil- 
ter it ;  the  impurities  remain  upon  the  filter,  and  to  the  filtrated 
liquor  is  added  some  marine  salt  (common  salt). 

"The  coloring-matter  is  precipitated,  by  cooling,  in  the 
form  of  a  very  brilliant,  handsome  green  product.  They  pul- 
verize and  dry  it,  and  it  is  sold  in  this  condition." 

DiPHEXYL AMINE    BlUE.* 

"  This  blue  is  obtained  by  causing  sesquichloride  of  carbon 
to  re-act  upon  a  mixture  of  diphenylamine.     Thus, — 

1  part  of  the  alkaloids, 

^  to  1  part  of  the  sesquichloride. 

"They  heat  this  mixture  to  between  160°  and  180°;  the 
mass  is  transformed  into  a  bronzed  product,  which  is  purified 
by  repeated  Avashings  in  benzine  and  alcohol.  This  blue 
presents  no  characteristic  distinction  from  those  of  the  blues 
derived  from  rosaniline." 

Aniline  Black. 
"  Aniline  black  is  produced   upon  tissues  (cotton-yarn  or 
fabrics),  either  by  printing  or  by  dyeing,  but  contrary  to  the 

•  This  is  a  pateut  of  Girard's  aud  De  Laire's. — G. 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  491 

other  aniline  colors,  it  develops  very  well  upon  cotton,  while 
up  to  the  present  time  there  have  l)ecn  no  good  results  ob- 
tained by  it  upon  wool  or  woolen  fabrics." 

"For  obtaining  the  black  in  printing  upon  cotton,  the 
following  is  the  recipe  laid  down  by  Charles  Lauth,  and  is 
generally  practised  to-day,  that  of  Lightfoot  having  been 
abandoned,  because  the  materials  which  he  employed  attacked 
the  fibre  and  almost  destroyed  it. 

10  litres  farina  starch, 
350  grammes  chocolatQ  of  potash, 
300         "         sulphuret  of  copper  (in  paste), 
300         "         sal-ammonia, 
800         '*         chlorhydrate  of  aniline. 

Or  thus : 

2j2j  gallons  farina  starch, 

11^  ounces  chlorate  of  potash, 

10|       '<       sulphuret  of  copper  (in  paste), 

10|-       "       sal-ammonia, 

28|-       "       chlorhydrate  of  aniline. 

"They  print  the  yarn  or  fabric  with  this  mixture,  and  carry 
into  a  very  airy  room  ;  the  black  develops  ;  then  the  yarn  or 
cloth  is  washed  either  in  pure  or  alkaline  water. 

"  For  coloring  with  the  aniline  black,  the  following  is  the 
method  adopted,  which  was  patented  by  Charles  Lauth  in 
1872. 

"The  cotton  (either  yarn  or  cloth)  is  first  mordanted  in  a 
concentrated  solution  of  a  salt  of  manganese  ;  it  is  then  dried  ; 
then  passed  through  an  alkaline  bath  ;  it  is  then  exposed  to 
the  action  of  the  atmosphere ;  then  washed  ;  then  passed 
through  the  dye-bath  which  is  made  up  as  follows  : 

100  litres  of  water:=244  galls.,  nearly. 
5  kilogrammes  of  anilinemll  lbs.,  nearl3\ 
10  *'  of  chlorhydric  acid=22  lbs.,  nearly. 


492  THE    AMEEICAIJf   DYER. 

Or,- 

22  gallons  of  water, 
11  lbs.  of  aniline. 
22     ♦'         of  chlorhydric  acid. 

Note.-  When  this  article  is  taken  out  of  the  dyeing-bath  it  has  a  deep  green 
color  ;  it  is  then  washed  in  an  alkaline  bath,  which  changes  it  into  a  mag- 
nificent black.  After  being  wasbed,  if  the  material  is  passed  through  a 
solution  of  bichlorate  of  potash,  the  color  will  be  more  iuteuse. — G. 


COLORS  DERIVED  FROM  PHENIC  ACID,  NAPHTHA- 
LINE, AND  ANTHRACENE. 

"In  the  pure  state,  picric  acid  is  sold  in  the  form  of  crys- 
tals, in  spangles  of  a  clear  yellow  color ;  it  dissolves  iu  alco- 
hol and  in  water. 

"  It  is  obtained  by  introducing,  in  small  quantities  at  a  time, 
nitric  acid  into  pheuic  acid,  or  else  into  a  mixture  pre- 
viously made  with  phenic  and  sulphuric  acids. 

"It  is  used  in  coloring  yellows,  and  some  particular  shades 
of  green,  by  mixture  with  a  blue.*  Picric  acid,  treated  with 
the  cyanide  of  potassium,  is  transformed  into  a  peculiar  acid 
called  isopurpuric  acid,  whose  color  is  red.  The  aramoniacal 
salt  of  this  acid  gives  a  coloring-matter  analogous  to  murex- 
ide.  The  isopurpurates,  iu  a  dry  state,  detonate  at  the  least 
shock." 

It  has  of  late  become  usual  to  employ,  instead  of  pure 
picric  acid,  the  soda-salt  of  this  acid,  under  the  name  of  ani- 
line 3'ellow.  This  has  given  rise  to  very  serious  accidents, 
owing  to  the  highly  explosive  nature  of  this  salt. 

« 
RosALic  Acid — Coralline — Azuline. 

"Rosalie  acid  is  obtained  by  treating  a  mixture  of  — 

*  See  recipes  for  green  on  felt  cloth. 


THE   AMEllICAN   DYER.  493 

One  part  oxalic  acid. 

One-half  to  one  part  plieuic  acid. 

Two  parts  sulphuric  acid. 

Rosolic  acid  gives  an  orange-yellow  color.  When  this  acid 
is  submitted  to  the  action  of  ammonia,  under  pressure  at  a 
temperature  of  150°,  this  product  is  transformed  into  a  red 
coloring-material,*  to  which  Guinon,  Manias,  and  Bonnett 
have  given  the  name  of  coraline.  These  gentlemen  obtained 
the  blue  coloring-material,  which  they  have  called  azuline,  by 
heating  the  red  product  (obtained  with  ammonia)  with  aniline." 

Colors  derived  from  Naphthaline. 

"  Many  experiments  have  been  made  to  obtain  colors  with 
naphthaline;  but  the  only  colors  which  have  been  prepared 
industrially,  tip  to  the  present  time,  are  a  3^ellovv  and  a  red. 
The  yellowf  is  obtained  by  the  action  of  nitrate  of  soda  upon 
the  chlorhydate  of  naphthylamine  ;  a  liquor  is  obtained,  which, 
heated  to  ebullition  with  nitric  acid,  gives  small  yellow 
needles,  whiuli  separate  and  which  they  collect  at  the  sur- 
face. 

"The  substance  is  analogous  to.  picric  acid,  only  it  gives 
shades  of  a  more  golden  yellow." 

Naphthaline  Scarlet. 

"This  substance  was  discovered  by  Schiendel,  at  Vienna  (in 
1867),  and  patented  by  Clavel  of  Basle.  To  obtain  this 
scarlet  they  employ  two  alkaloids,  —  the  naphthylamine  and 
an  oily  product  which  is  formed  at  the  same  time  and  which 
distils  at  a  higher  temperature.  This  last  product  has  nitrate 
of  protoxide  of  mercury  added  to  it  and  is  heated  to  a  tem- 
pei-ature  not  very  high. 

"There  is  formed  a  brown  coloring-matter  which  they  iso- 

*  This  red  will  not  resist  the  action  of  light.— g. 
t  By  the  Martius  process,  called  Marti  us  yellow. — o. 


494  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

late  from  the  mercur}'  and  from  the  tarry  products  that  form 
at  the  same  time.  This  brown  matter  is  mixed  with  a  certain 
amount  of  naphthylamine  ;  they  heat  the  whole,  and  the  red 
forms ;  they  free  it  of  impurities  by  the  means  employed  for 
the  aniline  colors. 

"An  analogous  product  is  obtained  after  the  method  of 
Mons.  Ulrich,*  by  causing  nitrate  of  lead  to  re-act  lipon  an 
acetate  of  rosaniline,  then  causing  an  alcoholic  iodine  to  re- 
act upon  the  product  thus  obtained. 

Artificial  Alizarine. 

"Graebe  and  Liebermann,  to  whom  belong  the  honor  of 
the  discovery  of  artificial  alizarine  by  means  of  anthracene, 
patented  a  process,  which  has  since  been  perfected  by  Broen- 
ner  and  Gutzkow. 

"These  chemists  treat  anthracene  by  an  oxidizing  agent, 
such  as  the  bichromate  of  potash,  with  sulphuric  or  some  other 
acid,  and,  by  preference,  they  take,  as  an  oxidizing  agent, 
nitric  acid,  twice  the  weight  of  the  product.  They  obtain  a 
substance,  which  they  purify  by  sublimation,  or  by  crystalli- 
zation. Then  they  dissolve  it  in  sulphuric  acid  by  aid  of  heat, 
and  then  add  a  salt  of  mercury,  a  nitrate.  The  coloring-mat- 
ter forms.  They  extract  it  by  means  of  an  alkaline  bath, 
which  develops  the  color.  They  filter.  They  precipitate  by 
the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  acid  to  the  bath.  Then 
they  purify  this  coloring  material  by  crystallization,  or  by 
sublimation.  "With  this  product  they  obtain  the  same  shades 
as  with  the  natural  alizarine  and  purpurine,  and  the  shades  are 
all  permanent  colors." 

"Once  entered  on  the  path,  organic  chemistry  will  not  stop 
again,  and  we  shall  not  dcs^pair  of  seeing  indigo  itself  soon 
share  the  fate  of  madder,  and  be  prepared  by  analogous  proc- 
esses." 

*  Mons.  Ulrich  obtained  a  patent  for  tbis  metbod  of  obtaining  red  from 
uapbtbaline  iu  1868. — G. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  495 

NoTK. — The  recent  wonderful  discovery  of  alizarine,  or  artificial  madder,  in 
coal-tar,  has  led  practical  men  to  expect  foo  miich  from  science.  We  know  that 
the  opinion  is  qnite  prevalent  among  manufacturers,  that  artificial  indif^otine 
has  already  been  obtained  from  the  same  source.  There  are  also  some  manu- 
facturers who  are  san>;uine  that  the  dithculties  of  indijfo-dyeinjjj  will  thus  be 
resolved.  We  do  not  think  it  improbable, — f<n-  what  is  impossible  to  modern 
chemistry  ? — that  this  result  will  yet  be  partially  obtained.  If  tiie  produc- 
tion of  artiticial  indij^otine  should  be  realized,  the  only  benefit  would  be  the 
possible  clu'apeninj^  of  in«ligo.  The  ditliculties  of  the  indigo-vat  would  still 
remain  ;  for  in  the  very  difUculties  of  working  an  indigo-vat,  or  in  the 
insolubility  of  blue  iudigotiue  by  ordinary  agents,  consist  the  excellence  of 
the  dye. — G. 

Of  all  the  colors  derived  from  tar,  artificial  alizarine  will, 
no  doubt,  be  the  most  important,  both  because  of  the  large 
amount  that  will  be  consumed,  but  because  of  the  revolution 
it  will  bring  about  in  the  agriculture  of  certain  countries  (the 
culture  of  madder). 

Chemists  sought  for  a  long  time  to  prepare  it  from  naphtha- 
line, because  of  the  relations  which  exists  in  the  composition 
of  the  two  substances  (alizarine  and  naphthaline),  but  it  was 
Graebe  and  Liebermann,  chemists  of  Berlin,  who,  applying  to 
alizarine  the  process  of  reduction  indicat*ed  by  Mons.  Berth-- 
ellott,  found  that  the  hydro-carburet  to  which  they  went  back, 
was  anthracene,  and  not  naphthaline.  After  this  discovery,  all 
that  was  wanting  was  to  find  a  process  by  which  they  could 
transform  the  anthracene  into  alizarine.  The  above-named 
chemists  were  successful  in  finding  a  process  of  doing  this ; 
but  later,  Broenner  and  Gutzkow  perfected  the  process  of 
Graebe  and  Liebermann. 

The  anthracene  is  extracted  from  the  solid  product  of  coal- 
tar,  by  rectifying  that  product,  but  it  is  not  yet  known 
whether  this  product  will  1)e  obtained  in  sufiicient  quantities 
to  furnish  the  whole  amount  of  alizarine  which  is  given  to-day 
by  the  madder. 

The  artificial  alizarine  has  all -the  properties  of  the  alizarine 
of  madder ;  and  over  all  the  aniline  colors,  it  has  the  advan- 
tage of  producing  permanent  shades,  although  it  has  not  their 
brilliancy. 


496  THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 


IMPROVEiMENTS  AND  DISCOVERIES  MADE  IN 
COAL-TAR  COLORS. 

From  the  first  discovery  of  aniline  violet  by  Dr.  W.  H. 
Perkins  in  1856,  to  the  present  day,  there  is  no  art  or  science 
that  has  made,  in  the  same  number  of  years,  such  progression, 
and  arrived  at  such  a  state  of  perfection,  as  that  of  producing 
artificial  dyes  from  coal  and  its  products. 

To  Poirrier  and  his  co-laborers,  more  than  to  any  other 
chemists,  are  dyers,  and  the  world  at  large,  mostly  indebted 
for  improvements,  inventions  and  discoveries,  which  have 
been  made  towards  the  perfection  of  these  colors. 

The  following  compilation,  as  well  as  some  of  the  pre- 
ceding pages,  are  translated  expressly  for  this  work,  from  the 
reports  of  the  Universal  Exposition  of  Vienna  in  1873. 

"  The  house  was  first  established  in  1830.  A.  Poirrier  has 
been  at  the  head  of  the  house  since  1858,  with  Chappat,  the 
younger,  as  partner,  until  18(58,  since  which  time  Porrier  has 
been  the  sole  proprietor  of  the  house,  having  connected  with 
.him  as  co-laborers,  such  eminent  chemists  as  Messrs.  Charles 
Lauth,  S.  Morel,  H.  Baubigny,  Luizet  and  others. 

A.  Poirrier  has  received  the  following  medals  and  diplomas  : 

First,  the  medal  of  honor,  London,  181)2. 

Gold  medal,  Paris,  1867. 

Diploma  of  honor,  Lyons,  1872. 

Grand  diploma  of  honor,  Vienna,  1873. 

At  the  Vienna  Universal  Exposition,  in  1873,  Charles 
Lauth  received  a  diploma  of  honor ;  Baubigny  and  Morel, 
medals  of  co-operation. 

Charles  Lauth  also  received  a  medal  of  the  first-class  from 
the  Industrial  Society  of  Mulhouse. 

A  platinum  medal  from  the  Society  of  Encouragement  of 
Paris  (for  aniline  black). 

A  gold  medal,  Paris,  1867. 

A.  Poirrier's  chemists  are  thus  classed  and  employed  : 

Charles  Lauth,  in  general  researches. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  407 

S.  Morel,  director  of  the  factory  for  chemical  products  at 
Pecy. 

H.  Baubigny ;  researches,  director  of  the  manufacture  of 
methyl-aniline  violet  and  gr^en. 

T.  Robatel  ;  researches,  director  of  the  manufacture  of 
rosaniline  and  its  derivations. 

Luizet,  director  of  the  manufacture  of  saflranine. 

A.  Poirrier  is  the  sole  proprietor  of  the  patents  for  violet  de 
Pan's,  and  sole  grantee  of  the  right  of  working.  He  is  also 
the  proprietor  of  the  patents  of  the  Fuchsiue  Company  of 
France;  viz.,  those  of  Messrs.  llenard  freres  et  Franc,  for 
red  ;  those  of  Messrs.  Girard  et  De  Laire,  for  blues  ;  those  of 
Mens.  Hoffmann,  for  violet;  those  of  Mr.  E.  C.  Nicholson, 
for  blue.  His  principal  works  are  at  St.  Denis  (Seine). 
There  are  employed  in  these  works  two  hundred  and  fifty 
workmen  ;  nine  steam-motors,  equal  to  seventy-five  horse- 
power ;  eight  generators,  equal  to  three  hundred  and  fifty 
horse-power.  The  branch  establishment  is  at  Pecy  (Seine 
and  Oise).  These  two,  combined,  are  larger  than  any  two 
aniline  manufactories  either  in  Europe  or  America. 

Ttie  inventions  and  progress  which  A.  Poirrier  and  his 
chemists  have  obtained  and  giv.en  to  the  public  are, — 

"First.  The  obtainment  of  violets  from  methylaniline, 
and  from  dimethylaniline,  without  iodine. 

"Second.  The  transformation  of  these  violets  into  blue 
violets,  and  very  blue  violets,  replacing  the  iodides  by  a  prod- 
uct more  economical. 

"Third.  The  substitution  of  methylaniline  violets  for  ros- 
aniline, for  the  manufacture  of  blue  violets  and  night-green. 

"  Fourth.  The  obtaining  of  green  from  methylaniline  with- 
out iodine,  and  application  to  industry  of  a  product  of  the 
laboratory,  and  of  a  very  advantageous  method. 

"Fifth.     Industrial  manufacture  of  this  product. 

"  Sixth.     New  process  of  dyeing  wool  in  night-green." 

The  results  of  these  inventions  and  discoveries  are — 

63 


498  THE   AMERICAN   DYEK. 

"  First.  The  entire  suppression  of  the  use  of  iodine  in  the 
manufacture  of  coloring-materials  from  coal-tar. 

"Second.  The  advantages  from  the  sanitary  point  of  view 
of  this  suppression,  and  of  the  substitution  of  methylauiline 
violets  for  rosaniline. 

"  Third.  Economy  in  the  net  price  of  violets  and  of  greens, 
also  improvement  in  the  qualities." 


INVENTIONS,  PROGRESS. 
I. — The  Obtainment  without   Iodine  of  METHrLANiLiNE 

Violets. 

"It  is  known  that  the  discovery  of  ethylic  and  methylic 
derivatives  of  rosaniline,  accomplished  in  a  large  part  by  the 
eminent  Prof.  Hoffmann,  speedily  brought  about  the  deprecia- 
tion and  almost  disappearance  of  other  aniline  violets. 

"The  manufacture  of  these  new  derivatives  led  to  the  dis- 
covery of  night-green  (called  the  iodine),  which  is  formed  at 
the  same  time  as  the  violet,  by  the  re-action  of  the  alcoholic 
iodides  of  rosaniline,  and  whoee  importance  has  been  increas- 
ing since  then. 

"The  production  of  these  beautiful  coloring  materials  in- 
volves the  consumption  of  considerable  quantities  of  iodine. 
This  substance,  whose  manufacture  is  very  limited,  was  not 
slow  to  increase  in  value  in  a  proportion  truly  extraordinary  ; 
for  we  saw  it  mount  from  the  price  (already  very  high  for  a 
raw  material)  of  twenty  francs  to  one  hundred  francs  a  kilo- 
gramme ($3.72  to  $16.60  per  2^  lbs.  av.). 

"  The  discovery  of  methylauiline  violets  constituted  a  great 
advance  in  their  industry,  and  the  rewards  which  the  jury  of 
1867,  at  Lyons,  accorded  to  A.  Poirrier,  show  the  importance 
which  they  attached  to  its  discovery.  But  this  was  only  a 
first  step  made  in  that  direction,  for  although  he  was  enabled 
to  produce  methylauiline  without  the  use  of  iodine,  he  was 


THE  a:mericak  dyer.  499 

obliged  to  employ  this  lust  agent  to  transform  the  alkaloid 
into  coloring-material.  One  of  the  processes  patented  by  him, 
and  which  was  still  partially  in  operation  at  the  factory  at  St. 
Denis  at  the  time  of  the  jury  of  18G7,  depended  upon  the 
use  of  iodine. 

"  Mr.  Charles  Lauth  has  since  obtained  for  him  a  new  proc- 
ess, by  which  this  use  is  wholly  done  away  with,  and  which, 
without  lessening  the  beauty  of  the  product,  increases  the 
production  of  it. 

"This  process  has  been  regularly  in  operation  in  their  factory 
for  more  than  eight  years,  and  has  enabled  them  to  produce 
enormous  quantities  of  the  violet  dye." 

II. — Manutactuke  avithout   Iodine,  of  Blue  Violets. 

"The  discovery  already  mentioned  was  followed  by  other 
very  important  inventions.  The  consumption  of  violets  is  not 
limited  to  the  use  of  a  single  shade  ;  it  requires  a  series  of 
products,  varying  from  the  tint  of  the  very  red  violet  to  the 
bluest  violets.  These  blue-violets  cannot  be  obtained  directly 
by  the  oxidation  of  methylaniline,  nor  even  by  the  oxidation 
of  dimethylaniline.  These  blue  shades  can,  to  be  sure,  be 
obtained  by  causing  the  iodides  of  ethyl  and  of  methyl  to  re-act 
upon  the  reddest  vjolets  ;  but  in  doing  this  you  fall  back  upon 
the  use  of  iodine,  and  thus  lose  a  part  of  the  advantage 
gained. 

"In  this  state  of  affairs,  recourse  must  be  had  to  the  use  of 
chloride  of  benzyl,  which  has  a  remarkable  action  upon  ros- 
aniline,  which  Messrs.  Lauth  and  Grimaux  had  previously 
pointed  out.  But  instead  of  obtaining,  as  with  rosaniline,  a 
violet  insoluble  in  water,  they  obtained,  by  the  action  of  the 
chloride  of  benzyl  upon  the  methylaniline  violets,  the  manu- 
facture of  blue  violets,  soluble  in  water,  and  possessed  of  a 
brilliancy  not  attained  by  any  of  the  products  thus  ftir  known. 
These  violets  constitute  new  chemical  substances,  whose  shade 
varies  in  accordance  with  the  proportion  of  benzyl  which  they 
contain,  and  which  has  the  property  (much  appreciated  by 


500  THE    A:MERIC^iX   DYER. 

dyers)  of  6xing  themselves  upon  animal  fibre,  with  the 
presence  of  a  certain  amount  of  acid,  and  that  without  chang- 
ing their  brilliancy. 

Note. — The  addition  of  acid  to  the  dye-bath  gives  to  the  wool  a  softer 
feeliug,  besides  euabliug  the  coloring  matter  to  lix  itself  iu  a  more  even  and 
uniform  manner. — G. 

"The  introduction  of  the  chloride  of  benzyl  into  the  in- 
dustry of  artiticial  coloring-materials,  obtains  them  at  a 
relative  low  price,  a  fact  which  easily  explains  the  value  of 
this  product,  compared  with  that  of  the  iodide  of  methyl 
(this  last  substance  is  now  worth  $18.60  per  21-  lbs.  av.), 
while  the  price  of  chloride  of  benzyl  is  about  seventy-four 
and  a  half  cents  for  the  same  number  of  pounds. 

"So  by  this  invention  they  have  solved  for  the  manufiicture 
of  violets  froni  alcoholic  radicals,  this  double  problem  of  doing 
away  with  iodine,  thus  diminishing  their  net  cost,  and  of  im- 
proving their  quality,  by  increasing  their  beauty  and  their 
tinctorial  advantages." 

III.  —  Substitution  of  Methtlanilixe  Violet  for  Ros- 

AXILINE    for    the    MANUFACTURE    OF    XiGHT-GrEEN. 

"  The  doing  away  with  iodine  in  the  manufiicture  of  violets 
ought  naturally  to  lead  to  the  same  progress  in  the  manufacture 
of  greens.  "NVe  might  even  sav  that  tJiere  was  a  more  im- 
portaut  point  to  attain,  since  the  manufacture  of  greens  con- 
sumes so  much  more  important  quantities  of  iodine ;  and  this 
element,  making  a  constituent  part  of  green  (as  Messrs.  Hoff- 
mann and  Girard  have  demonstrated),  is  absolutely  lost,  and 
goes  out  of  circulation. 

"  The  first  advance  realized  in  this  line  of  ideas  consisted  in 
manufacturing  nigld-greeii  by  the  action  of  the  iodine  of 
methyl  upon  the  methyl-aniline  violets,*  and  no  longer  upon 
rosauiliue.     This  last   substance    consumes    more  iodine,  in 

*  Since  the  latter  part  of  1368,  A.  Poirrier  has  employed  methylauiline 
violet  exclusively  for  the  manufacture  of  greens. — G. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  501 

Older  to  be  transformed  into  green,  than  does  raethylaniline 
violet,  since  the  hitter  contains  already  a  certain  proportion 
of  alcholic  radicals,  which  is  introdnced  in  the  case  of  the 
rosaniline,  by  the  action  of  the  iodides." 

IV.  —  Manufacture,  without  Iodine,  of  Nigiit-Gijekn. 

"  When  Poirrier  and  his  chemists  introdnced  into  the  manu- 
factnre  of  violets  the  use  of  chloride  of  benzyl,  they  were 
strnck  with  the  analogy  which  existed  between  this  agent  and 
the  alcoholic  iodides,  and  they  made  numerons  efforts  to  sub- 
stitnte  it  for  them  in  the  manufactnre  of  greens. 

"The  researches  made  in  this  direction,  however,  did  not 
resnlt  in  obtaining  a  green  that  was  in  any  manner  permanent, 
the  green  thus  obtained  being  in  very  small  quantities,  and 
very  insoluble.  It  therefore  became  necessary  for  them  to 
search  for  some  other  product  from  which  they  could  obtain  a 
green  dye. 

Mons.  Bauligny  renewed  the  attempts  which  he  had  previ- 
ously made,  and  had  several  times  renewed  before,  and  modi- 
fying them,  succeeded  in  replacing  the  iodide  of  methyl  with 
the  nitrate  of  methyl,  which,  in  the  action  exercised  upon  the 
methylaniline  violet,  effects  the  formation  of  a  large  amount  of 
the  green  dye.* 

"  This  process  of  manufacturing  green  has  been  carried  on 
in  Poirrier's  factory  since  the  end  of  the  year  1871.  This 
green  appeared,  in  1872,  at  the  exposition  of  Lyons. 

"No  aniline  manufacturer  had,  up  to  that  time,  offered 
night-green  in  that  state  of  purity  in  which  Poirrier  presented 
it  to  the  public.  From  that  time  the  demand  for  consumption 
for  such  articles  fastened  more  and  more  upon  this  particular 
shade  of  green,  and  the  demand  to-day  is  greater  for  this 
green  than  for  any  other  shade. 

*  Comparison  of  the  not  jn-iccs  of  iodine  of  methyl,  $IS.60,  and  of  nitrate 
of  methyl,  seventy-four  and  one-half  cents  per  two  and  one-fifth  pounds 
avoirdupois,  shows  the  gl'cat  advantage  which  results  from  the  use  of  this 
last  substance. — G. 


502  THE   AMERICAN   DTEK. 

Note.  —  The  nitrate  of  methyl,  by  its  action  upon  niethylaniline,  gives 
large  quantities  of  green,  but  will  give  little  or  none  in  its  re-action  upon 
rosauiline.  —  G. 

V.  —  Manufacture  of  the  Nitrate  of  Methtl. 

"The  introduction  into  industry  of  an  agent  reputed  so 
dangerous  as  the  nitrate  of  methyl,  was  not  made  without 
difficulty.  From  1866  they  had  been  wishing  to  take  up  the 
manufacture  of  this  article  for  the  preparation  of  methyl- 
aniline.  Their  factory  had  been  stopped,  after  some  weeks  of 
progress,  by  a  series  of  accidents  of  every  nature. 

"The  persevering  efforts  and  skill  of  Mons.  Morel  triumphed 
over  the  difficulties  inherent  in  the  manufocture  of  this  sub- 
stance, and  he  has  produced,  up  to  this  date  (1873),  over 
44,000  pounds  of  nitrate  of  methyl  without  an  accident.  This 
is  the  same  chemist  who  has  had  the  direction  of  the  manu- 
facture of  chloride  of  benzyl  in  Poirrier's  works  for  the  last 
eight  years." 

VI.  —  New  Process  of  Dyeing  "Wool  Night-Green. 

"The  cheap  production  of  night-green  caused  these  chem- 
ists to  search  for  the  means  of  extending  its  applications. 

"  Although  the  silk  and  cotton  dyers  had  succeeded  with- 
out difficulty  in  using  the  green,  it  had  not  been  so  with  the 
dyers  of  wool  and  woolen  fabrics,  on  account  of  the  woolen 
fibre  not  having  the  same  affinity  for  the  green  dye  as  it  has 
for  the  other  aniline  dyes  or  colors.  Upon  alkaline  baths  the 
dyes,  in  making  the  Nicholson  blues,  would  give  medium 
results  only ;  it  was  therefore  necessary  to  find  a  new  and 
special  process. 

"  Mons.  Charles  Lauth  has  accomplished  this,  by  mordant- 
ing (or  preparing)  the  wool  with  hyposulphite  of  soda." 
(The  sulphur  in  the  hyposulphite  fixes  itself  within  the  fibre 
of  the  wool,  which  qualifies  it  to  attract  the  green  dye.) 

"  Shades  of  an  incomparable  intensity  and  beauty  are  thus 
obtained." 

"Mons.  Lauth  made  known,  in  1869,  a  process  of  coloring 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  503 

an  aniline  black  on  cotton  by  means  of  the  peroxide  of  man- 
ganese. This  process  is  based  upon  a  principle  analogous  to 
that  which  has  enabled  the  same  chemist  to  render  the  dis- 
covery of  aniline  black  useful  in  calico-printing."  (Sulphide 
of  copper.) 

VII. — The  Progress  Effected  in  their  Different  Man- 
ufactures. 

"Rosaniline  and  its  derivations,  blues,  saffranine. 

"The  improvements  which  they  have  made  in  the  manu- 
facture of  rosaniline  and  its  derivations,  are  less  important 
than  those  which  they  have  just  made  known  for  obtaining 
violets  and  greens,  but  they  are  not  less  real. 

"By  making  variations  in  the  proportion  of  the  different 
alkaloids  which  enter  into  its  composition,  the  different  sorts 
of  rosaniline  are  obtained  which  are  intended  for  the  dye 
itself,  or  for  this  or  that  transformation.  . 

"  According  to  the  particular  shade  of  blue  they  wish  to 
obtain,  they  cause  the  different  and  given  alkaloids,  in  vary- 
ing proportions,  to  re-act  upon  a  determined  variety  of  ros- 
aniline. 

"The  blue,  which  is  to  be  dissolved  in  alcohol,  is  not  of 
the  same  composition  as  that  which  is  to  be  dissolved  in  sul- 
phuric acid. 

"Finally,  this  manufacture  of  blue  conjoined  with  sulphur 
is  perfectly  regulated,  and  there  is  obtained  the  first,  the 
second,  or  the  third  acid  combination,  according  to  the  appli- 
cations to  which  these  products  are  destined. 

"All  arrangements  necessary  in  the  way  of  preparations, 
instructions,  and  manipulations,  are  provided,  in  order  to 
avoid  any  accidents  which  might  result  from  the  manuftictur- 
ing  of  rosaniline. 

"The  mauufiicturing  of  rosaniline  and  of  the  blues,  is  under 
the  direction  of  Mons.  T.  Robatel.  The  manufacturing  of 
saffranine,  which  is  a  delicate  process,  is  perfectly  regulated 
under  the  directions  of  Mons.  Luizet." 


504  THE    AMERICAX   DYER. 

"In  1868  and  1869,  the  above-named  chemists  had  pro- 
duced, by  original  (with  them)  processes,  a  certain  quantity 
of  green,  derived  from  benzyl-aniline  and  from  dibenzyl-ani- 
line,  but  on  account  of  the  amount  of  alcohol  it  required  to 
dissolve  this  new  colorinof-material,  and  the  cost  resulting 
from  the  use  of  alcohol,  and  the  inferiority  in  comparison 
to  the  methylic  green  (which  is  solubie  in  water),  the  manu- 
facturing of  this  green  was  entirely  abandoned." 


RESULTS  OF  IMPROVEMENTS   AND  DISCOVERIES 
MADE  BY  POIRRIER  AND  HIS  CHEMISTS. 

I. — The  Abandonment  of  Iodine   in   the  Manufactur- 
ing OF  Coloring-Materials  derived  from  Coal. 

II.  —  The  Advantages  of  this  Abandonment  from  a 
Sanitary  Point  of  View,  and  of  the  Substitution  of 
Methylaniline  Violets  for  that  of  Rosaniline. 

"The  production  of  iodine  is  one  of  the  most  limited.  It 
is  made  only  in  France,  upon  the  shores  of  Brittany,  in  Scot- 
land, and  in  Ireland. 

"The  quantities  produced  by  France  and  by  Great  Britain 
are  very  much  of  the  same  amount.  This  is  one  hundred  alid 
sixty-five  thousand  pounds  for  each  country,  making  in  all 
three  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  pounds  ;  but,  in  conse- 
quence of  bad  times  in  the  last  few  years,  this  production  has 
fallen  to  two  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  pounds,  for  the 
consumption  of  the  whole  world. 

"The  manufacturing  of  violets  and  greens  from  alcoholic 
radicals  made  such  a  development,  that  the  demand  for  iodine 
for  that  purpose  was  increased  to  one  hundred  and  ten  thou- 
sand pounds  during  the  year  1871  ;  and  notwithstanding  the 
war  (in  France),  this  amount  represented  one-half  the  total 
production. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  505 

"Moreover,  the  consumption  of  iodine  for  medicinal  uses 
does  not  cease  to  incrense. 

"Iodine,  in  1802,  wlien  it  was  employed  only  in  pharmacy, 
was  valued  at  $1.86  per  pound,  and  reached,  in  1872,  the 
enormous  price  of  $8.30  per  pound. 

"Such  prices  were  a  l)ait  for  fraud,  and  the  adulterators 
applied  themselves  to  giving  to  the  bromide  of  potassium  the 
appearance  of  the  iodide,  in  order  that  it  might  l)e  delivered 
to  the  trade  as  such.  But,  in  consequence  of  the  discoveries 
made  by  Mons.  Lauth,  the  use  of  iodine  in  the  manufacture 
of  coloring-materials  derived  from  coal  is  now  entirely  done 
away  with ;  therefore  iodine  began  to  decline  rapidly,  and 
from  the  price  of  one  hundred  francs,  in  1872,  at  which  it 
was  valued,  it  has  declined  to  -iifty  francs  now  (1876),  and 
there  is  no  doubt  but  that  it  will  have  a  further  decline,  and 
the  fraud  spoken  of  a1)ove  will  cease,  the  difference  between 
the  price  of  iodine  and  that  of  bromine  being  no  longer  great 
enough  to  tempt  fraud. 

"These  new  processes  spoken  of  have  not  only  contributed 
to  exercise  a  happy  influence,  from  a  sanitary  point  of  view, 
in  restoring  to  pharmacy  fifty  thousand  kilogrammes  of  iodine, 
but  they  contribute  further  to  diminish,  in  a  great  proportion, 
the  use  of  arsenic  acid,  a  not  less  important  advantage  for 
health. 

"In  manufacturing  by  their  processes  the  violets  and  the 
greens,  without  passing  to  them  by  way  of  rosaniline,  dimin- 
ish the  consumption  of  rosaniline,  whith  is  always  prepared 
with  arsenic  acid  on  account  of  the  economy  of  the  net  cost. 

"Now,  for  all  the  care  and  precaution  we  may  take,  the 
handling  of  large  quantities  of  arsenic  acid  is  very  dangerous  ; 
therefore,  the  less  use  we  make  of  it  in  making  materials  for 
colors,  the  less  danger  there  will  be  encountered. 

"From  this  they  believe  that  they  have  rendered  a  great 
service  to  hygiene,  as  well  as  to  the  public  health,  by  dimin- 
ishing in  a  very  great  measure  the  use  of  rosaniline,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  arsenic  acid  it  contains." 

64 


506  THE    A3EERICAN   DYER. 


II.  —  Cheapness,  Improvement  of    Qualities,  '  and   Ex- 
tension GIVEN  TO   the    French   Industry   of  Colors 

DERIVED   FROM    COAL. 

"By  these  discoveries  they  have  been  able  to  reduce  the 
price  of  their  violets  and  greens  amazingly.  Such  grades  of 
methylamine  violets  as  they  sold  in  1867  at  from  one  hundred 
and  twenty  to  one  hundred  and  forty  francs  per  kilogramme 
(21  lbs.),  (while  methylic,  or  ethylic  violets,  made  from 
rosaniline,  were  selling  at  two  hundred  francs  for  the  same 
number  of  pounds),  are  now  sold  by  them  for  forty  to  fifty 
francs  per  two  and  a  half  pounds  (or  one  kilogramme),  and 
the  quality  is  far  superior.  So  they  can  say  that,  up  to  the 
present  date,  by  the  quality  of  their  violets  and  greens,  by 
their  cheapness,  and  by  their  new  processes  of  application,  they 
have  rendered  the  dyeing  of  the  entire  world  tributary  to 
France. 

"The  sum  total  of  their  sales  has  risen,  by  reason  of  the 
diminution  of  their  prices;  when,  in  1867,  the  lowest  price 
for  violets  was  one  hundred  and  twenty  francs  per  kilogramme 
(21  lbs.),  the  sales  amounted  to  six  hundred  thousand  francs  ; 
and  in  1872  the  sales  reached  the  enormous  amount  of  one 
million  eight  hundred  thousand  francs,  when  the  price  had 
fallen  one-half  (sixty  francs).  For  their  greens  they  have 
likewise  seen  their  sales  triple  ;  from  three  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  francs,  the  figure  which  it  had  reached  in  1870,  their 
sales  rose,  in  1872,  to  nearly  one  million  francs." 

"The  quality  and  cheapness  of  Poirrier's  violets  and  greens 
have  established  a  monopoly  much  more  real  and  lasting  than 
patents,  which  are  so  little  respected  and  always  so  much 
debated." 


NEW  YORK 
DYEWOOD  EXTRACT  &  CHEMICAL  CO, 


MANUFACTURERS    OF 


EXTRACT  LOGWOOD 


AND    ALL    OTHER 


Dyewood  Extracts,  Solid  and  Liquid. 


IMPORTERS    OF 


DYESTUFFS,  CHEMICALS,  Etc. 

WORKS    AT    BROOKLYN,    L.  I. 
OFFICES  : 

161  FRONT  ST.,  NEW  YORK. 


WILLIAM  R.  RENWICK,  Pres.  .    JOS.  C.  BALDWIN,  Treas. 

WILLIAM  T.  ALLEN,   Sec'y. 


44 


SAVOGRAN." 


A    WOOL    AND    WOOLEN    FABRIC 


SCOURING  COMPOUND. 


Wool  Tvasbiug  and  cleaning  is  a  very  important  item  in  the  mannfaetnre 
of  Woolen  Goods,  and  any  improvement,  or  suggestion,  will  claim  the  atten- 
tion of  all  in  the  business.  It  is  not  only  important  that  the  Wool  should 
be  clean,  but  that  it  should  be  left  in  as  natural  a  state  as  possible.  The 
manner  in  which  Wool  is  often  delivered  to  the  carder,  although  /;lean,  is 
harsh  and  brittle,  thereby  causing  loss  in  waste  by  carding  as  well  as  in 
weight  in  manufacturing,  and  preventing  the  colors  from  taking  so  clear  or 
bright  as  when  the  Wool  is  soft  and  white. 

Soda  Ash  has  invariably  been  found  too  harsh  in  its  nature  :  and  when, 
as  is  often  the  case,  the  washer  finds  a  stubborn  Wool  to  clean,  he  uses  an 
excess  of  Ash,  thereby  destroying  the  elasticity  of  the  fibre,  and  causing  a 
loss  by  electricity  in  spinning  the  yarn. 

Among  the  many  inquiries  we  have  as  to  what  we  shall  use  in  place  of 
Ash,  we  would  say  that  many  of  the  large  Woolen  Mills  are  using 

Manufactured  by  Messrs.  MASURY,  YOUNG  &.  CO.,  of  Boston,  and,  in 
using  it  for  the  past  three  or  four  years,  have  found  that  it  overcomes  the 
objection  to  Soda  Ash.  We  call  the  attention  of  those  interested  to  the  ad- 
vertisement on  page  opposite,  in  regard  to  its  use,  &c. 


W9m 


,    ,  J  vV>' \y  fr  )  will  /,  .( 


Scouring,  Washing,  Fulling  and  Bleaching  Wool. 

An  Improvement  on  DETERGENT,  and  n  substitute  for  Soda  Asli.  Is  readily  dissolved, 
and  IcuveB  no  refuse  or  sediment.  Will  cleiinse  WOOL  thoroualdy,  makini;  it  SOFT  and 
WHiriJ,  reducing  ELECTRICITY  in  carding  and  spinning,  thoreUy  SAVING  in  WEIGHT 
OF  YARN;  and  in  DYEING,  the  COLORS  are  much  more  EVEN  and  BRIGHT  than  if 
scoured  with  Soda  Ash. 

For  FULLING  and  WASHING,  as  well  as  for  finishing  YARNS,  if  it  is  used  in  about 
equal  quantities  of  SAVOGRAN  and  Soap,  it  is  unrivalled. 
(Put  up  in  Barrels  or  Casks.) 

MASUEY,  YOUNe  &  CO.,  28  India  St.,  Boston,  .  .  Maiiiifactiirers. 


-mg-rAT^T.Tqxr-mT)  iaB0. 


SCOTCH  WOOL  OIL, 

Manufactured  expressly  for  use  on  Wool,  to  take  the  phice 
of  lard,  and  other  fatty  oils.  It  will  produce  belter  results, 
and  at  a  much  less  cost  to  the  consumer. 

It  will  saponify  as'  well  as  the  best  Lard  Oil, 
wash  out  of  the  goods  easier,  stand  a  colder 
temperature,  keep  the  cards  cleaner,  go  as  far, 
and  do  the  work  as  well,  as  any  other  oil  now  in 
use  for  this  purpose. 

Spontaneous  Combustion  cannot  possibly  occur 

WllEKE   THIS  OIL   IS    USED. 

MASURY,  YOUNG  k  CO., .  .  Proprietors. 

also,  manufacturers  of  and  dealers  IN 

Spinile,  Lirlcatiug,  MacMuery,  Paraffliie,  Wliale,  Sperm,  Lari  aud 


SAI'ONIFIED   OILS, 

No.   28   India  Street,    Boston. 


MOREY  &  CO., 

197  State  St.,  Boston, 

Sole  Agents  for  the  United  States 


FOR 


ARC-EN-CIEL 

ANILINE  COLORS. 


These  colors  are  manufactured  expressly  for  us,  and  we  guarantee  them  to 
be  strictly  pure. 


Price  Lists  and   Samples  furnished   upon   application. 


Sole  Agents  for  New  England 


FOR 


NATRONA  POROUS  ALUM. 

This  Alum  is  now  so  widely  known,  and  so  generally  used,  that  perhaps  it  is 
hardly  necessary  to  say  that  it  is  the  cheapest  Alum  in  the  United  States. 


IMPORTERS  AND  DEALERS  IN 
And  Manufacturers'  Supplies  generally. 


Part  Fourth. 


TABLE  OF  PRIME  EQUIYALENTS  OF  CHEMICAL 
SALTS  AND  DYESTUFFS; 

GLOSSAKY    OF    TECHJN^ICAL    TERMS   ANT> 
CHEMICAL  :N^AMES; 

COLORED    SAMPLES,   WITH   RECIPES. 


THE    AMEKICAX   DYER. 


TABLES. 


A  French  Table  of  Prime  Proportions  between  Bichromate  of  Potash 
and  the  Different  Dyewoods,  icith  the  Colors  produced. 

[We  insert  this  without  comment,  leaving  it  to  the  dyer  to  form  his  own  conclusions 
as  to  its  correctness,  &c.] 


2i 

30-40 

_ 

_ 

Black. 

If 

18-22 

- 

- 

Slate. 

\\ 

12-15 

- 

- 

Lead. 

i . 

3-6 

- 

- 

Grav. 

2i 

26 

4 

- 

Invisible-green, 

H 

24 

12 

- 

Green. 

-h. 

18 

38 

- 

Dragon-green, 

H 

15 

25 

- 

Bottle-green. 

2! 

18 

14 

- 

Swallow-green. 

2^ 

8 

70 

8 

Myrtle-green. 

n 

12 

6 

10 

Dark-olive. 

Blchromato  of  Potash — time  for  boiling,  one  and  a  quarter  hours. 
Logwood,  Fustic,  and  Hypernic,  time  for  boiling,  three-quarters  of  an 
hour. 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 


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THE   AMEKICAIf   DYER.  515 


GLOSSAKY 

OF 

4 

TECHNICAL  TERMS  AND  CHEMICAL  NAMES 

f 

USED    IN    THIS    WORK. 


Aqua  fortis,  nitric  acid. 

Alterant,  a  substance  added  to  a  color  to  give  it  brightness, 
"raising." 

Ai-gol,  bitartrate  of  potash,   formed  by  deposit  in  wine- 
casks. 

Aqua  regia,  a  mixture  of  muriatic  and  nitric  acids,  two 
parts  of  the  former  and  one  of  the  latter. 

Alkalies  {fixed),  soda,  pot,  and  pearlash. 
"        {volatile),  ammonia. 
"        {compounds),  urine  and  soap. 

Ammonia,  see  article,  ammonia. 

Azote,  nitrogen. 

Aqueous  tincture,  watery  solution  of  any  substance. 

Acidulous  salts,  all  salts  that  contain  an  acid. 

Alumina,   a  clay  that   will  combine  with  acids,   forming 
salts,  such  as  alum. 

Acetate  of  cojiper,  verdigris,  a  mixture  of  acetate  of  lead 
and  copper,  or  blue  vitriol. 

Acetic  acid  {vinegar),  see  article,  acetic  acid. 

Acidulated,  a  solution  containing  acid. 

Acid  bath,  a  solution  containing  acid. 

Acetate  of  iron,  a  solution  of  copperas  and  acetate  of  lead. 

Acetate  of  lead,  sugar  of  lead,  a  combination  of  lead  and 
acetic  acid. 


516  THE  a:merica^  dyer. 

Acetate  of  chrome,  a  combination  of  chrome,  oil  of  vitriol,  and 
sugar  of  lead. 

Acetate  of  alumina,  a  combination  of  four  parts  sugar  of 
lead,  five  parts  alum,  and  eleven  parts  water. 

Aeriform,  having  the  form  or  appearance  of  air. 

Astringents,  a  general  term  for  such  dyestuffs  as  contain 
the  astringent  principle,  or  are  possessed  of  the  property  of 
tannin,  such  as  sumac,  oak  bark,  cutch,  &c. 

Alkaline  solutions,  lime,  or  potash  water. 

Bisulphate  of  copper,  blue  vitriol,  blue  stone. 

Bichromate  of  potash,  red  chromate  of  potassa,  chrome. 

Bois  rouge,  camwood. 

Borate  of  soda,  borax. 

Bichloride  of  tin,  double  muriate  of  tin. 

Barilla,  the  name  of  an  impure  soda  imported  from  Spain 
and  the  Levant. 

Bisidphuret  of  iron,  iron  pyrites. 

Binoxalate  of  potash,  salt  of  sorrel,  or  oxalic  acid. 

Boracic  acid,  boron  combined  with  oxygen. 

Braziline,  the  solid  extract  of  hj-pernic,  peachwood,  &c. 

Bitartrate  of  potash,  or  potassa,  cream  of  or  refined  tartar. 

Bichloride  of  mercury ,  corrosive  sublimate. 

Bisulphate  of  soda,  a  combination  of  soda  and  oil  of  vit- 
riol. 

Bisulphate  of  potash,  a  combination  of  potash  and  oil  of 
vitriol. 

Bromine,  one  of  the  elements.     See  Table  of  Elements. 

Bisulphate  of  iron,  a  very  poor  kind  of  copperas. 

Benzole,  or  benzine,  a  product  derived  from  coal-tar. 

Bottom,   or  bottoming,  to  put  part  of  the   color  upon  the 
wool  or  cloth,  by  immersing  it  in  the  blue  vat. 
Calcium,  lime. 

Crystals  of  tin,  salts  of  tin,  or  muriate  of  tin  crystals. 
Carbonate  of  soda,  cr3'stallized  soda. 
Carbonate  of  lime,  whiting. 
Chlonde  of  calcium,  lime  and  muriate  of  soda  (salt). 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  517 

Chloride  of  tiuy  muriate  of  tin,  inuriiitic  acid,  killed  with 
tin. 

Oitric  acid,  lemon-juice. 

Chemical  salts,  acids  uniting  to  any  of  the  earthy,  alkaline, 
or  metallic  bases. 

Color,  a  term  used  s^^nonymously  to  express  the  coloring 
liquor,  the  color  on  the  fjibric,  or  the  composition  of  the 
color. 

Carmine,  coloring-matter  of  cochineal,  extracted  and  dried. 

Caustic  hje,  the  clear  liquor  from  a  solution  of  soda-ash  and 
lime. 

Citrate  of  lime,  lime  in  combiaation  with  citric  acid. 

Ciipric  sulphate,  blue  vitriol. 

Chloride  of  potassium,  combination  of  magnesia,  muriatic 
acid,  and  mineral  salts. 

Crystallized  verdigris,  acetate  of  copper. 

Chloride  of  potash,  the  clear  liquor  of  bleaching  powder 
and  pearlash. 

Caustic  soda-hje,  see  caustic  lye.' 

Chloride  of  calcium,  lime  through  which  chlorine  has  passed. 

Copperas,  protosulphate  of  iron. 

Chlorine,  a  gas  obtained  from  oxygen  and  muriatic  acid. 

Chloride  of  copper,  a  combination  of  oxide  of  copper  and 
muriatic  acid. 

Chromate  of  potash,  yellow  chromate  of  potash  combined 
with  caustic  potash. 

Chlorate  of  jyotash,  chlorine  gas  combined  with  carbonate 
of  potash. 

Cyanide  of  potassium,  red  prussiate  of  potash  and  carbon- 
ate of  potash  coml)ined. 

Chromate  of  lead,  chrome  and  acetate  of  lead  combined  in 
solution. 

Chromic  acid,  a  combination  of  chrome,  chrome  iron  ore, 
antl  oil  of  vitriol — dark  crimson  color. 

Caustic  lime,  slacked  lime. 

Chloride  of  sodium,  common  salt. 


518  THE   AMERICAX   DYER. 

Chemic,  sulphate  of  indigo  (which  see). 
Carbonic  acid,   a  combination  of  marble  or  chalk,  with 
diluted  muriatic  acid. 

Calcareous  zvater,  water  impregnated  with  lime  or  other 
alkalies. 

Couching,  the  curing  or  preparing  of  woad  for  the  blue- 
vat. 

Caloric,  the  principle  or  matter  of  heat. 

Calorific,  producing  heat. 

CurcKmine,  a  plant  named  Curcuma  langa;  from  the  roots 
we  obtain  turmeric. 

Carbolic  acid,  an  acid  obtained  from  coal-oil. 

Catalysic,  an  affinity  or  power ;  a  chemical  change  among 
the  particles  of  bodies,  one  body  inducing  a  chemical  change 
in  another. 

Carbonate  of  ammonia,  the  products  of  distillation  of  bones, 
or  a  mixture  of  chalk  and  sal-ammoniac  sublimed. 

Caseine,  curd  of  milk. 

Calcareous,  having  the  properties  of  lime. 

Doctored,  to  adulterate  ;  generally  applied  to  such  dyestuffs 
as  are  not  good. 

Dip,  generally  applied  to  immersing  wool  or  cloth  in  the 
blue- vat  or  dye-tub. 

Double  muriate  of  tin,  bichloride  of  tin  (which  see). 

Dilute,  or  diluted,  to  weaken  or  reduce  with  water,  as 
diluted  oil  of  vitriol. 

Decoction,  a  watery  solution  of  any  coloring-matter  or 
material. 

Extract  of  fustic,  the  solid  coloring-matter  of  fustic. 

Extract  of  logwood,  the  solid  coloring-matter  of  logwood. 

Extract  of  indigo,  an  erroneous  term  applied  to  sulphate  of 
indigo,  or  chemic. 

Epsom  salts,  sulphate  of  magnesia. 

Extractor,  a  machine  for  depriving  the  wool,  cotton,  or 
cloth  of  its  superfluous  water  or  coloring  solution. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  619 

Essential  salt  of  lemons,  sec  binoxalate  of  potash. 

An  extract,  the  solid  coloriiig-inatter  of  the  different  dye- 
woods,  such  as  logwood,  fustic,  and  quercitron. 

Flurry,  orfluery  of  a  blue-vat ^  the  froth  of  oxidized  indigo 
floating  on  the  vat. 

Feathering,  to  granulate  a  metal,  to  feather  tin  to  kill  the 
difi*erent  acids. 

Fast  color,  a  permanent  color. 

French  tub,  muriate  of  tin  and  logwood,  called  plumb-tub. 

Formula,  the  manner  or  form  in  which  the  recipes  are 
written  ;  the  recipe  or  its  form. 

Ferrocyanide  of  potassium,  yellow  prussiate  of  potash. 

Ferricyanide  of  potassium,  red  prussiate  of  potash. 

Glauber  salts,  sulphate  of  soda. 

Green  vitriol,  copperas. 

Grain  tin,  metallic  tin. 

Garancine,  one  of  the  coloring  products  of  madder. 

Gypsum,  sulphate  of  lime. 

Gallic  acid,  an  acid  obtained  from  nutgalls. 

Glycerine,  a  sweetish  oil  obtained  from  fat. 

Hematine,  extract  of  logwood. 

Hematoxylon  campechicum,  logwood. 

Hydrochloric  acid,  muriatic  acid. 

Hartshorn,  the  volatile  alkali,  ammonia. 

Hyponitric  acid,  peroxide  of  nitrogen. 

Hydrochlorate  of  rosaniline,  fuchsine  or  magenta. 

Hydrate  of  lime,  lime  dry-slacked,  termed  ware  in  blue- 
dyeing. 

Hypochlorite  of  lime,  bleaching  powders. 

Indigo  paste,  the  soda  sulphate  of  indigo. 

Iodide  of  potassium,  iodine  and  potash. 

Isomeric,  properties  which  give  the  same  number  and  weight 
of  elements,  signifying  equal  parts. 

Iron  liquor,  nitric  acid  killed  with  iron. 

Killing,  dissolving  tin  or  iron  in  muriatic  or  nitric  acids. 


520  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

Kilo,  or  Txihgramme ,  a  French  weight  equal  to  2  pouuds,  8 
ounces,  1  drachm,  and  14  grains. 

Lactine,  a  curd  of  milk  used  for  animalizing  cotton,  some- 
times called  ladarine. 

Lye,  solution  of  an  alkali,  as  potash  or  soda. 

Limestoney  carbonate  of  lime. 

Litharge,  protoxide  of  lead. 

Logwood  liquor,  a  thick,  syrupy  solution  of  the  coloring- 
matter  of  logwood. 

Lactic  acid,  an  acid  contained  in  milk. 

Litharge,  protoxide  of  lead.     (See  protoxide  of  lead.) 

Litre,  a  French  measure  containing  a  fraction  over  a  quart. 

Mordant,  any  one,  or  a  mixture,  of  several  chemical  salts 
used  in  dyeing,  is  the  mordant  or  base  of  the  color,  and  can 
be  applied  before,  or  at  the  same  time,  or  after  the  coloring 
matter  has  been  boiled  on  ;  in  the  latter  case  it  is  called  sad- 
dening. In  cotton  dyeing  it  is  generally  applied  to  the  acetate 
of  alumina. 

Mineral  alkali,  soda. 

Muriatic  acid,  hydrochloric  acid. 

Marine  acid,  hydrochloric  acid. 

Muriates,  chlorides. 

Muriate  of  soda,  common  salt. 

Muriate  of  sodium,  common  salt. 

Muriate  of  tin,  muriatic  acid,  killed  with  tin. 

Murio-sulj^Jtate  of  tin,  muriatic  and  sulphuric  acids,  killed 
with  tin. 

Murio-nitrate  of  tin,  a  mixture  of  muriatic  and  nitric  acids, 
killed  with  tin,  the  muriatic  acid  being  in  excess ;  the  same 
with  the  murio-sulphate. 

Muriate  of  iron,  muriatic  acid,  killed  with  iron. 

Maclurine  acid,  an  acid  contained  in  fustic. 

Muriate  of  ammonia,  sal-ammoniac. 

Morine,  the  pure  coloring  principle  of  fustic. 

Morus  tinctoria,  fustic. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  521 

2^itro-muriate  of  tin,  nitric  and  muriatic  acids,  killed  with 
tin,  the  nitric  being  in  excess. 

Initiate  of  iron,  nitric  acid  killed  with  iron,  iron  liijuor. 

Nitrate  of  copper,  copper,  killed  with  nitric  acid. 

Nitrate  of  soda,  nitric  acid  added  to  common  soda. 

Nitric  acid,  an  acid  obtained  by  distilling  nitrate  of  potash 
and  oil  of  vitriol  together. 

Nitrate  of  potash,  saltpetre. 

Nitrate  of  lead,  metallic  lead,  dissolved  in  nitric  acid. 

Nitro-muriatic  acid,  see  aqua  regia. 

Nitrate  of  zinc,  a  solution  of  nitric  acid  and  zinc. 

Nitrate  of  alumina,  a  solution  of  alum,  soda  crystals  and 
nitrate  of  lead. 

Oxymuriate  of  potash,  see  chlorate  of  potash. 

Oxymuriatic  acid,  chlorine. 

Oil  of  vitriol,  sulphuric  acid. 

Oxymuriate  of  tin,  perchlorido  of  tin,  or  tin  dissolved  in 
nitric  and  muriatic  acids,  sometimes  called  permuriate  of  tin. 

Oxalate  of  copper,  oxide  of  copper  digested  in  oxalic  acid. 

Oxalate  of  potash,  crystallized  carbonate  of  potash  and 
oxalic  acid. 

Oxalate  of  potassa,  see  oxalate  of  potash. 

Orcine,  or  orceine,  the  pure  coloring  matter  of  archil. 

Pearlash,  carbonate  of  potash. 

Permuriate  of  tin,  see  oxymuriate  of  tin. 

Prussiate  of  potash,  see  ferrocyanide  of  potassa,  or  potash. 

Potash  sulphate   of  alumina,  alum. 

Protosidphate  of  iron,  copperas. 

Phenic  acid  (carbolic  acid) ,  an  acid  found  in  coal-tar. 

Persalt  of  mercury,  red  oxide  of  mercury,  dissolved  in  oil 
of  vitriol. 

Protoxide  of  tin,  a  precipitate  formed  from  a  solution  of 
crystals  of  tin  by  carbonate  of  soda. 

Peroxide  of  tin,  the  ores  of  tin,  tinstone. 

Potash,  a  strong  caustic  alkali. 

66 


522  THE   AMEEIOAN   DYER. 

Pyrolignate  of  iron^  a  brown  liquid  solution  of  iron  in 
pyrolignc'ous  acid,  improperly  termed  iron  liquor. 

Pyroligneous  acid,  an  acid  obtained  from  wood,  by  the 
process  of  destructive  distillation. 

Protoxide  of  lead,  lead  and  oxygen  combined  in  equal  parts. 

Protochlonde  of  tin,  see  oxymuriate  of  tin. 

Perchloride  of  tin,  tin  dissolved  in  nitric  and  muriatic 
acids,  generally  called  nitro-muriate  of  tin. 

Pigment,  a  coloring  substance,  as  paints. 

Potassa,  an  alkaline  salt  obtained  from  different  ashes, — 
ashes  from  plants,  &c. 

Potassium,  a  white,  soft  metal  with  a  lustre  like  silver. 

Phenic  acid,  see  carbolic  acid. 

Pyrogallic  acid,  an  acid  obtained  by  heating  gallic  acid  to 
420°. 

Persidjphate  of  iron,  a  solution  of  copperas,  and  sulphuric 
and  nitric  acids. 

Precipitate,  a  substance  in  solution  chemically  separated 
from  its  solvent  and  thrown  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel. 

Pyrites,  a  combination  of  sulphur  with  iron,  copper,  cobalt 
or  nickel.  ' 

ProtosaUs  of  iron,  sulphate  of  iron. 

Picric  acid,  an  acid  obtained  from  carbolic  acid. 

Red  tartar,  crude  cream  of  tartar,  argols. 

Raising,  see  alterant. 

Red  liquor,  acetate  of  alumina. 

Rosalie  acid,  an  acid  from  coal-tar. 

Ruherythimic  acid,  an  acid  obtained  from  madder. 

Re-agents,  different  substances  acting  upon  other  substances. 

Radical  salts,  any  element  or  compound  that  forms  an  acid 
when  combined  with  hydrogen,  and  a  salt  when  united  with  a 
metal.     Sulphuric  and  nitric  acids  are  radical  salts. 

Sulphate  of  iron,  copperas. 

8upertartrate  of  potash,  cream  of  tartar. 

Suljjhomuriate  of  tin,  sulphuric  and  muriatic  acids  killed 
with  tin.     (See  solutions  of  tin.) 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  523 

Sulphate  of  indigo,  chemic,  indigo  paste,  extract  of  indigo. 
(See  article,  Sulphate  of  Indigo.) 

jSulj)hu7'ic  acid,  oil  of  vitriol. 

Soda-ashy  a  crude  caustic  alkali  or  carbonate  of  soda. 

Santaline,  the  pure  coloring-matter  gf  red  sanders. 

Sal-soda,  crystallized  carbonate  of  soda. 

Soda  cryslals,  crystallized  carbonate  of  soda. 

Sadden  or  saddening,  giving  the  mordant  after  the  color- 
ing-matter is  boiled  on  the  wool  or  goods  ;  making  a  color 
darker  by  means  of  a  chemical  salt,  such  as  copperas,  blue 
vitriol,  alum,  &c. 

Sulphate  of  magnesia,  epsora  salts. 

Sal-ammoniac,  hydrochlorate  of  ammonia,  crystallized  am- 
monia. 

Sulphate  of  lime,  a  substance  formed  of  carbonic  acid  and 
lime,  nearly  insoluble.  It  is  found  in  small  quantities  in 
spring  waters. 

Sulp)hate  of  soda,  glavfber  salts. 

Sidphate  of  copper,  blue  vitriol. 

Spirits,  the  different  solutions  of  tin. 

Spirits  of  salt  (erroneously  called  so),  muriatic  acid. 

Sp.  gr.,  specific  gravity,  or  density. 

Salinixon,  see  blsulphate  of  potash. 

Sal-volatile,  sesquicarbonate  of  ammonia. 

Salts  of  lemon,  citric'acid. 

Saltpetre,  nitrate  of  potash. 

Salts  of  tin,  crystallized  protochloride  of  tin. 

Slacked  lime,  hydrate  of  lime. 

Spirits  of  wine,  alcohol. 

Sugar  of  lead,  brown  and  white  acetate  of  lead. 

Substantive  color,  a  color  fixed  in  the  fibre  without  base  or 
compound. 

Salts  of  alumina,  alum,  acetate  of  alumina,  &c. 

Sul])hate  of  lime,  gypsum. 

Sodium,  one  of  the  elements. 


524  THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 

Suhacetate  of  lead,  a  combimitioii  of  sugar  of  lead  and 
litharge. 

Sesquioxide  of  iron,  a  conibiDation  of  carbonate  of  soda 
and  iron. 

Salifiable  bases,  bases  capable  of  becoming  a  salt. 

Storax,  a  juice  obtained  from  the  bark  of  the  fir-tree. 

SulpJiuret  of  copper,  a  solution  of  blue  vitriol,  caustic  soda, 
and  sulphur. 

Sul])1iate  of  alumina,  alum. 

Salts,  or  chemical  salts,  acids  united  to  any  of  the  earthy, 
alkaline,  or  metallic  bases. 

[The  salts  employed  as  mordants  in  dyeing  are  of  two 
kinds, — the  simple  and  compound.  The  simple  is  some  sub- 
stance that  assumes  a  crystalline  as  its  common  shape,  such  as 
oxalic,  tartaric,  and  citric  acids.  The  compounds  are  com- 
posed of  two  or  more  substances  in  chemical  union,  such  as 
sulphate  of  copper,  alumina,  and  iron.  The  term  salt,  in  the 
strictest  sense,  seems  to  apply  almost  exclusively  to  the  latter 
class.  In  cotton-dyeing,  mordant  is  only  applied  to  acetate  of 
alumina..] 

Tannin,  the  astringent  principle  contained  in  many  sub- 
stances used  in  dyeing,  and  other  purposes.  It  is  that  prop- 
erty contained  in  barks,  &c.,  which  converts  raw  hides  into 
leather,  called  tanning.  It  is  the  same  principle,  under 
another  name,  as  the  astringent  principle. 

Tannic  acid,  obtained  by  digesting  nutgalls  in  ether. 

[When  it  is  pure  it  is  a  solid,  uncrystallizable,  white  or 
slightly  yellowish  in  color  ;  it  is  inodorous,  very  astringent  to 
the  taste,  but  not  bitter.] 

Tincture  of  soap,  soap  dissolved  in  alcohol. 
Vegetable  alkali,  potash. 
Verdigris,  acetate  of  copper. 

Volatile  alkali,  ammonia. 

White  vitriol,  sulphate  of  zinc. 

White  copperas,  sulphate   of  zinc. 
Ware,  hydrate  of  lime,  slacked  lime. 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 


525 


TABLE   OF   SYMBOLS   AND   FORMULAS. 


Acids. 
Acetic, 
Arsenic,    . 
Arsenious, 
Benzoic,    . 
Boraoic,    . 
Carbonic, 
Carl)()lic,  . 
Carminie, 
Catechutannic, 
Chromic, . 
Citric, 
Cresylic,  . 
Gallic,      . 
H3ponitrics, 
Lactic, 

Morintaunic,     . 
JMuriatic,  . 
Nitric,  anhydrous. 
Nitric, 
Nitrius,     . 
Nitro-rauriatic, 
Oxalic,      .       • . 
Phthalic,  . 
Pjrogalllc, 
Rosolic,     . 
Riiberythic, 
Sulphuric, 

"        Nordhausen, 
Tannic  (galls), 
Tartaric,  . 

Chemical  Compounds. 
Aluminium, 

"  acetate  of,  . 
"  chloride  of, 
"  nitrate  of,  . 
"       sulphate  of. 

Alum,  ammonia, 
"       chrome, 
"       potash,  . 


Old  Notation. 


CJI.O, 

AsOs 

AsOg 

BU3 
CO2 

CrUg 

Ci2li80l4 

Ci.HgO., 

^14^6010 
NO4 

CioH^jOij 

^26^10^12 

HCl 

N05 

H0,N05 
NO  3 
NO.,  CI  2 
C^HaOie 
CieWgOg 

Ci.2H,06 
C'4ofIl6^4 

HOSO3 

HO,S03-|-S08 

^64^22^84 


Al 

AI2CI3 

Al203;^N06 

Al  203:3803 

/'Al20j3SOgNH40S' 

\      03-[-24IIO 

f  CraOg^SOgKO,  S 

\    03-fJ4HO 

r   Al.,03  8S08,KOS 

\   O3+24IIO 


New  Notation. 


C2H4O2 
II3ASO4 

HgAsOg 

CrHo02 
H3BO3 

No  change. 
CsHeO 

Cx6Hi406 

No  change. 
CellsO, 
CtHoO 
C,H,0, 

N2O, 

CgHgOg 

CisIlioOe 
No  change. 

N2O5 

HNO3 

HNO2 

2H20-fNOCl+CL 

C2UeO, 

CsIifiO, 

CgHgOg 

^20'll6^2 

*-20''22^^11 

H2SO, 

H2S2O, 
^27^22^17 


No  change. 

AI2CI, 
AlaNOg 
Ala^SO. 

Al2(NHj24SO,+24 
U2O 

KCr2SO^+12H20 
Al2K24S0^4-24H20 


526 


THE   AMERICAN    DYER. 

Table  of  Symbols  and  Formulas — Con. 


Old  Notation. 


AmmoK  I  gas, . 
"         aqua, 
"         carbonate  of,    . 
"         chloride  or  mu- 
riate of, 
"         nitrate  of, 
"         sulphide  of, 
"        sulphate  of. 
Antimony,  teroxide  of,    . 
Borax,      .        .        .        . 
Barium,    .        . 
"        acetate  of, . 
"         chloride  of, 
"         sulphate  of. 
Chromium, 

"  acetate  of, 

"  chloride  of, 

"  sesquioxide  of, 

"  teroxide  of, 

Copper,    .... 
"       chloride  of,  . 
"       nitrate  of,     . 
"       black  oxide  of,     . 
"       red  oxide  of, 
"       oxalate  of,    , 
"       sulphide  of, . 
"       sulphate  of, . 
Iron,  bisulphide  of,  . 
"    ferrous  oxide  of, 
"    hydrated  ferrous  ox- 
ide of,    . 
"    ferric  chloride  of, 
"    oxalate  of, 
"    sesquioxide  of, 
"    sulphide  of, 
"    sulphate  of, 
"    persulphate  of. 
Lead,        .... 
"     acetate  of, 
"     basic  acetate  of, 
"     carbonate  of,   . 
"     chloride  of, 
"    red  chromate  of, 
"    yellow  chromate  of, 
"     nitrate  of, 
"     protoxide  of,   . 
"     sulphate  of, 


Nil  3 

NH,0 

NH.OCOa 

NH4CI 
NH,0,NOj 
NH,S 
NH.O.NOj 

SbOg 

NaO^BOj 

Ba 

C^HjBaO. 

BaCl 

BaOSO. 

Cr         ' 

Cr,Cl3 

Ci-O, 

Cu   ' 

2CuCl 

CuOXOg 

CuO 

CujO— 

CuaC^Og 

CuS 

CuOS0.4-5HO 

FeSa 

FeO 

FeO,HO 

FcaCCg 

Fe.Og 

FeS 

FeO,S03-h7HO 

Fe„033SOa 

Pb 

PbO,C,H3-}-.3Ay 

CJlgOgSPbO 

PbO,C02 

PbCl 

2PbOCrO. 

PbOCrOj 

PbONOg 

PbO 

PbOSO, 


New  Notation. 


No  change. 

NII^IIO 

(NHJ^COg 

No  change. 

NII^NOg 

(NIIJ.S 

NII^NUj 

SbjOj 

NajB^O, 

Ba 

CaNaOjBa 

BaCl  2 

BaSO^ 

No  change. 

Cr22(C2U30,) 

Cr^Cle 

No  change. 


CuClj 

Cu-iNOgeHgO 
No  change. 

2C2CuiiO„H20 
CuS 

CuS044-.5H.,0 
No  chauo:e. 


FeHjOa 
FcaCle 

No  change. 

FeS 

FeSO,+7IIjO 

FcaSSO^ 

No  change. 

Pb2CJl302,3H20 

2PbOPb2C2H30o 

PbCOj  ' 

PbCla 

PbjCi-Os 

PbCrOg 

Pb:.^N03 

No  change. 

PbSO^ 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

Table  of  Symbols  and  Formulas — Con. 


527 


Old  Notation. 

New  Notation. 

Lime  (calcium), 

Ca 

No  change. 

"     acetiite  of, 

CaO.CJI, 

Ca(C^U,0^)^ 

"     chloride  of, 

CaCl 

CaCl  2 

"     bleaching  powders, 

Ca(),C10-|-CaCl 

CaCl2Ca2C10 

"     caustic,     . 

CaO 

CaOa 

"     carbonate  of,   . 

CaOCOj 

CaCOg 

"     oxalate  of. 

CaO,C208 

CaCoO. 

"     phosphate  of,  . 

SCaOPbg 

Cag2Pb, 

"     sulphate  of, 

CaOSOg 

CaSO. 

"     slack. 

CaOIIO 

CaHoO 

Mercury,  .... 

Ilg 

Hg 

"        nitrate  of, 

ligONOs 

HgN^Oe 

"        protoxide  of,    . 

Magnesium,     . 

Mg 

No  change. 

"            sulphate  of,  . 

MgOSO.+THO 

MgSO.-f-ZIIjO 

Potassium, 

K 

No  change. 

"       anhydrous,  . 

KO 

K2O 

"       bicarbonate  of,     . 

KO2CO0 

IIKCO3 

"       bichromate  of, 

KO.'CrOg 

K./2CrOi 

"       binoxalate  of. 

K0:.^Cr03 

- 

"       bisulphate  of, 

KO2SO3 

HKSO. 

"      carbonate  of, 

KOCO2 

K2CO3 

"       caustic  of,    . 

KOIIO 

KlIO 

"      chlorate  of,  . 

KOCIO5 

KClOg 

"      chloride  of,  . 

KCl 

No  change. 

"      chromate  of. 

KOCrOg 

K2Cr04 

"       cyanide  of,  . 

KCy 

KCy 

"      ferricyanide  of,    . 

KgCyeFcj 

KsF^Cye 

"      ferrocyanide  of,   . 

K.^UygFe 

K.FeCye 

"      iodide  of, 

Kl 

KI 

"      oxalate  of,   . 

KOCaOg 

_ 

"       permanganate  of, 

KOMn^Oy 

KMnO. 

"       suipliate  of, . 

KUSO3 

K2SO, 

"      sulphide  of,. 

K8 

KjS 

"       tartrate  of,    , 

KOJIOCgll^Oio 

HKCJI^Og 

"       tartar  emetic  of,  . 

KOSb^OgCglLOio 

2(KSbOC4lI^06)Ay 

Silver,       .        .        .        . 

Ag 

No  change. 

"      nitrate  of. 

AgOXOg 

AgNOg 

Sodium,    .        .        .        . 

Na 

No  change. 

"     acetate  of, 

NaOCJIgOg-f-eHO 

C2n302Na 

"     bicarbonate  of, 

NaO^COj 

HNaCOg 

"     bisulphate  of,  . 

Na()-\SOg 

HNaSO^ 

"     carbonate  of,    . 

NaOCOj 

NagCOg 

"     carbonate  of  (crys- 

tallized). 

NaOCOj-t-lOHO 

Na2COg+10n2O 

"     caustic,    . 

IIONaO 

IlJsaO 

"     chloride  of, 

NaCl 

NaC 

528 


THE   A^IEEICAN    DYER. 

Table  of  Symbols  and  Formulas — Con. 


Old  Notation. 

Xew  dotation. 

Sodium, 

"     glauber  salts  of. 

NaOSOg-flOHO 

NaoSO.lOHaO 

"     hydro-sulphite  of,    . 

NaOSoOo 

Na^soj 

"     nitrate  of. 

NaONOg 

NajNOg 

"     phosphate  of  (biba- 

sic),      . 

2NaOHOPOs 

HNajPO^ 

Tin,  . 

Sn 

No  change. 

"    bisulphide  of. 

SnSg 

" 

"    crystals  of. 

SuCl+2H0 

SnCL+2H.O 

"    murexide  of. 

SnO 

SnO 

"    pink  salts  of. 

SnCl2+2NH.Cl 

SnCl,+2NH^Cl 

"    protochloride  of 

SnCl 

No  change. 

"    prussiate  f)f. 

8SnCy,Fe2Cy8 

SugFe^Cyia 

"    fen-icyanide  of. 

- 

- 

"    stannic  acid  of. 

SnOa 

No  change. 

Water,      . 

HO 

H.^O 

Zinc, 

Zn 

No  change. 

"    acetate  of. 

C.HgZnO^ 

Zn(C2H302)2 

"     carljonate  of. 

ZNOCOj 

ZnCOg 

"     chloride  of. 

ZnCl 

ZnCl  2 

"     nitrate  of, 

ZnONOg 

ZnNOg 

"     sulphate  of, 

ZuOSOg 

ZnSO^ 

Organic  Compounds. 

Magdala  red,   . 

- 

^30"21^3 

Carthaniine, 

— 

C14H16O7- 

Isopurpurate  of  potash,  . 

- 

CgH.KXOs— 

Alloxan,  .         .         .         . 

_ 

C4H4N2O5- 

Benzole,   .        .        .         . 

_ 

CoIIe 

Kitro-benzole, . 

_ 

CJIsCNOj) 

Mauveine, 

_ 

C06H24N4 

Phenyl,     .        .         .        . 

_ 

c;ii5 

Oxide  of  jihenyl. 

- 

(<-'6H5)20 

Iodine  green  crystals. 

- 

^^2538       32 

Hydrated  carbolic  acid,   . 

- 

CeHeO+H20 

Nai^hthaline,     . 

- 

CioHg 

Base  of  naphthaline  red. 

- 

^30'^21^  8 

Naphthaline  yellow, 

- 

CloH6(^^^2)20 

Nitro-naphthuline,    . 

- 

c\,iA^o,^ 

Bibromoanthrachinon,     . 

- 

Ci,HeBr202 

Methylaniline, . 

- 

CeHs(CIlg)N 

Diphenylamine, 

- 

Ci2H,nN 

Naphthylaruine, 

-• 

C10H9N 

Triphenylic  rosaniline,     . 

- 

C2oHio(C'6H5)gNg 

Indigotine, 
Isatine, 
Indican,    . 
White  indigo,  . 

• 

- 

^16^1l0^2^2 
Cl6Hio^2^^4 
^■2  6  "83  ^^18 

THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 

Table  of  Symbols  and  Formulas — Con. 


629 


Old  Notation. 

New  Notation. 

Indiu:o  frluoine, 

_ 

6CJIi,()« 

Carmiiu'  red,    . 

- 

CmHi.O. 

Curcumine, 

- 

^lo^^lO^^S 

Qucroitriiie, 

- 

C33"8oO,+01I, 

Dextrose, 

- 

C6lli2^^6 

Antlirapurpurine, 

- 

Si^!i4> 

Purperine, 

- 

Cl4"805 

Alizarine, 

- 

C.JIgO, 

Anthracene, 

- 

C14H10 

Alizarate  of  potash, 

- 

KaO^Ci^rig 

Protocatechuic  acid, 

- 

CvH,0, 

Oreine, 

- 

C^HgOg 

Morin, 

- 

CioHioOe 

Braziline, 

- 

C32H18O7 

Luteoline, 

-' 

^2of^l4^8 

Santaline, 

- 

CgNA 

Ethyl  alcohol,  . 

- 

CoIIe-O 

IMethyl  alcohol, 

- 

CH4O 

Ethyl,        . 

- 

C..H5 

Methyl,     . 

- 

CH3 

Iodide  of  ethyl, 

- 

C.,HJ 

Anthraquinone,    '    . 

- 

C14H8O2 

Aniline,    . 

- 

C0H5NH2 

Aniline  yellow  (soluble  ir 

alcohol). 

- 

C2oHi9N20g 

Rosaline  white, 

- 

C20H19N3 

Rosaniline  red, 

— 

CgoHigNgOHg 

SPECK     DYES. 
For  Brown. 
25  lbs.  Extract  Logwood, 
30  lbs.  Copperas, 
30  lbs.  Sumac. 
Run  three  pieces  at  a  time  over  the  reel  for  twenty  min- 
utes, at  a  heat  of  125°  Fahr. 
For  the  next  three  pieces,  add 

6  lbs.  Sumac, 

5  lbs.  Extract  Logwood, 

7  lbs.  Copperas, 

and  proceed  as  for  first  three  pieces. 

67 


530  THE    A]MEKICAN   DYER. 

This  last  addition  must  be  made  for  every  three  pieces. 
'  The  pieces  are  double-width  beavers,  weighiug  sixt}'  pounds 
to  the  piece. 

Boil  out  the  sumac  in  a  separate  tub  or  barrel,  and  use  the 
clear  liquor  only. 

"Wash  oft*  the  pieces  before  you  speck-dj'e  them,  also  after 
being  speck-dyed. 

For  Black  or  Blue. 

Take  a  barrel  that  will  hold  two  hundred  and  twenty  gal- 
lons of  water ;  fill  it  half  full  of  water.  Add  to  it  eighty 
pounds  soda-ash ;  boil  uutil  it  is  dissolved.  Then  add  eighty 
pounds  liquid  extract  of  logwood  (specific  gravity,  51°)  ; 
boil  twenty  minutes. 

Now  dissolve  twenty  pounds  blue  vitriol  in  as  little  water 
as  possible  ;  then  put  a  piece  of  iron  pipe  (the  larger  in  diam- 
eter the  better)  into  the  solution,  and  turn  the  blue-vitriol 
solution  down  the  pipe,  a  little  at  a  time.  By^  so  doing  you 
will  prevent  its  foaming,  and  will  not  cause  so  much  sediment 
to  settle  at  the  bottom. 

After  you  get  all  the  blue  vitriol  in,  fill  up  the  barrel  with 
water. 

Use  one  pail  of  this  to  every  piece  weighing  sixty  pounds, 
that  you  run  at  a  time  ;  that  is,  after  your  speck-tub  has  been 
set. 

To  Set  the  Speck-Dye. 

To  a  tub  that  you  intend  to  speck-dye  in,  that  w'ill  hold  four 
or  five  hundred  gallons,  add  all  of  the  above-described  solu- 
tion ;  then  fill  up  to  the  proper  working  height.  Work  the 
speck-dye  at  130°  Fahr. 

For  Green  Felts. 

Take  three  pails  of  copperas,   dissolve  it  in  a  barrel  of 

water.     Into  a  tub  of  cold  water  put  fifteen  quarts  of  this 

solution  for  the  first  seven  pieces;  give  the  cloth  four  ends; 

take  out  and  run  into  the  prussiate-tub.     For  the  next  seven 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 


531 


pieces,  give  seven  quarts  of  the  copperas  solution.  For  the 
next  seven  pieces,  give  four  quarts  of  the  sohition.  Give 
four  ends  for  each  seven  pieces.  This  last  is  the  standard 
solution. 

Dissolve  ten  pounds  red  prussiate  in  one-half  barrel  of 
water.  Into  a  tub  of  cold  water  put  iifteen  quarts  of  the 
sol ul ion,  and  one  quart  oil  of  vitriol  ;*  six  ends  for  each  seven 
pieces.  For  the  second  seven  pieces,  give  seven  quarts  of 
prussiate  solution  ;  give  six  ends.  For  the  next  seven  pieces, 
o-ive  four  quarts  prussiate  solution  ;  give  six  ends.  This  last 
is  the  standard  solution. 

After  coming  out  of  the  prussiate-tub,  the  pieces  must  be 

washed  off. 

*  One  pint  for  every  seven  pieces,  after  the  first  seven  pieces. 


THE    AMERIOAJS"   DYER. 


533 


CLOTH    SAMPLES. 


No.  l.-r Blub- BLACK. 


No.  2.  —  liitowN. 


No.  3.  —  Blue. 


No.  4.  —  Blue  Melton. 


No.  5.  —  Blue  Melton. 


No.  (i.  —  Black. 


i 


THE    AMERICAN   DYEK.  535 

KEMARKS  ON  PIECE-DYEING  (see  p.  136). 
In  the  first  place  the  pieces  should  be  thoroughly  washed 
after  being  fulled  and  scoured,  as  any  grease  or  soap  left  in 
the  pieces  acts  as  a  deadly  obstacle  to  the  coloring  of  them  ; 
therefore,  care  should  be  taken  to  clear  them  well  out,  as 
greasy  or  soapy  pieces  cause  the  dyer  more  trouble  than  all 
the  rest  of  the  difficulties  with  which  he  has  to  contend.  If 
the  pieces  are  greasy  or  soapy,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  he  will 
have  them  full  of  light-colored  places  or  clouds,  and  whenever 
you  have  such  places  in  the  pieces,  you  may  be  doubly  sure 
that  the  grease  or  soap  is  not  washed  out  of  them,  for  it  is 
almost  an  impossibility  in  piece-dyeing  to  have  light  clouds 
or  places  in  them  caused  by  either  the  manipulations  or  dye- 
stuffs.  Where  pieces  are  clouded  by  the  dyeing  you  will 
alwai/s  find  them  to  be  darker  than  the  whole  piece,  not 
lighter. 

After  they  are  washed  off  they  should  get  all  the  gigging 
intended  to  be  given  them,  and  if  they  can  be  cropped  some 
before  dyeing,  it  would  make  a  great  improvement  in  the  in- 
tensity of  the  color  ;  and  for  these  reasons  : — if  they  have  to  be 
gigged  much  after  they  are  dyed,  the  friction  of  the  gig  makes 
the  color  look  gray ;  and  besides,  if  they  are  dyed  without 
cropping,  the  long  nap  on  them  acts  as  a  filter  to  the  color, 
and  prevents  the  coloring  matter  from  penetrating  into  the 
body  of  the  cloth.  Consequently,  after  they  are  dyed,  and  the 
nap  is  sheared  off,  you  will  perceive  that  the  color  is  much 
lighter  than  3'ou  expected,  for  the  reason  that  the  best  part  of 
the  color  has  been  sheared  off. 

Every  dyer  should  insist  upon  having  his  pieces  come  to 
him  PERFECTLY  CLEAN,  for  lie  has  enough  to  contend  with  in 
piece-dyeing  without  having  greasy  or  soapy  cloth  sent  to  him 
from  the  fulling-roora, 

The  pieces  should  be  prepared  one  day  and  finished  the 
next ;  and  after  they  are  dyed,  do  not  wash  them  off  the  same 
day  if  it  can  be  avoided,  or  at  least  do  not  allow  them  to  go 


536  THE  aiviericaj^  dyer. 

directly  to  the  wash-box,  but  give  the  color  time  to  fix  itself 
fairly.  Wash  off  all  colors  with  cold  water  only,  except  in 
some  particular  cases.  If  the  cloth  has  to  be  speck-dyed,  do 
not  do  it  until  the  day  after  they  are  colored. 

The  cloth  samples  are  made  from  thirty-five  per  cent,  wool 
and  sixty- five  per  cent,  shoddy  ;  both  in  the  warp  and  filling 
the  shoddy  contains  a  large  amount  of  cotton  threads. 

In  speck-dyeing,  the  black  and  blues  should  be  done  on 
rollers,  two  pieces  at  a  time,  and  run  them  about  twenty-five 
minutes. 

.  The  blues  are  specked  in  the  same  tub  and  the  same  dye  as 
the  black.  Be  particular  to  observe  the  degrees  of  heat  with 
each  recipe. 

All  these  cloths  are  six-quarters  wide. 

Bail  the  dye-woods  one  and  a  half  hours,  unless  otherwise 
stated  in  the  recipe. 

In  finishing  the  cloth,  always  cool  down  the  dye  before  en- 
tering the  cloth.  In  the  recipes  you  will  find  that  tartarine 
is  used.  (See  article,  Tartarine.)  If  you  have  not  got  it, 
use  one-third  more  of  red  tartar  than  is  named  of  tartarine ; 
that  is,  if  the  recipe  calls  for  six  pounds  tartarine,  use  eight 
pounds  red  tartar  in  its  place. 

If  you  are  obliged  to  finish  the  cloth  on  the  same  day  that 
it  is  prepared,  be  sure  and  cool  off  the  cloth  from  the  prepa- 
ration thoroughly. 


RECIPES  FOR  CLOTH,   WITH   SAMPLES. 
Blue-black   Chinchillas. 
No.  1.     1  piece,  45  yards,  100  Ib's. 

Prepare  with — 

3  lbs.  Chrome, 

3  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol, 

1|1I)S.  Tartarine. 
Boil  cloth  two  hours. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  537 

Finish  with — 

GO  lbs.  Chip  Logwood, 
2  lbs.  Camwood. 
Boil  cloth  two  hours.     Speck-dye  at  130°  (see  recipe  for 
speck-dye) . 

For  a  Jet  Black  on  same  Goods. 
Six  pieces,  480  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

12  lbs.  Chrome, 
6  lbs.  Tartarine, 
8  lbs  Blue  Vitriol. 
Boil  cloth  two  hours. 
Finish  with — 

150  lbs.  Chip  Logwood, 
20  lbs.  Chip  Fustic. 
Boil  cloth  two  hours.     Speck-dye  at  150°. 

Brown. 
No.  2.     6  pieces  heavy  Chinchilla,  520  ll)s. 

Prepare  with — 

12  lbs.  Chrome, 
12  lbs.  Tartarine, 
2  lbs.  Alum. 
Boil  cloth  tw^o  hours. 
Finish  with — 

45  lbs.  Extract  Fustic, 
45  lbs.  Madder, 
100  1I)S.  Camwood, 
20  lbs.  Grouiul  Logwood, 
20  lbs.  Sanders, 
20  lbs.  Barwood, 
5  lbs.  Extract  Ilypernic. 
Throw  these  into  the  kettle  loose,  and  boil  twenty  minutes  ; 
then  cool  down  and  enter  the  cloth,  and  boil  one  and  three- 

68 


538  THE    A]VrERICAX   DYEK. 

quarters  hours.  Take  out  and  wash  off.  Extract  the  water 
out  of  them,  and  speck-dye  at  130°  (see  speck-dye  for 
brown). 

The  extract  of  fustic  and  hyperuic  you  must  dissolve  before 
putting  it  into  the  tub. 


Blue. 

No.  3.     6  pieces  Chinchilla,  452  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

15  lbs.  Alum, 
8  lbs.  Oxalic  Acid, 

2^  lbs.  Chrome. 
Boil  cloth  one  and  three-fourths  hours. 
Finish  with — 

5  lbs.  Ground  Hypernic, 

6  lbs.  Cudbear, 
100  lbs.  Chip  Logwood. 

Boil  one  and  a  half  hours  ;  then  cool  down  and  enter  cloth, 
and  boil  two  hours  ;  speck-dye  at  130°. 

Blue. 
No.  4.     8  pieces  light-weight  Meltons,  388  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

12  lbs.  Alum, 

7  lbs.  Oxalic  Acid, 
1|  lbs.  Chrome, 

I  lb.    Tin  Crystals. 
Boil  cloth  one  and  three-fourths  hours. 
Finish  with — 

110  lbs.  Chip  Logwood, 
6  oz.    Tin  Crystals. 
Cool  down  and  enter  cloth.    Boil  cloth  one  and  three-fourths 
hours  ;  speck-dye  at  130°. 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  539 

Blue. 

No.  5.     8  pieces  heavy-weight  Meltons,  490  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

1  lb.    Chrome, 
12  lbs.  Alum, 
8  lbs.  Oxalic  Acid, 
1  lb.    Tin  Crystals. 
Boil  cloth  one  and  three-fourths  hours. 
Finish  with — 

100  lbs.  Chip  Logwood. 
Cool  down  ;  enter  cloth.    Boil  one  and  three-fourths  hours  : 
speck-dye  at  170°. 

Black. 
No.  6.     On  cotton  warp,  worsted  filling,  and  cotton  and 
shoddy  backing,  forty  per  cent,  cotton  in  the  back  filling. 
Narrow-width  cloth,  fourteen  ounces  to  the  yard,  thirty  yards 
in  a  piece. 

First.  Dissolve  thirty  pounds  copperas,  and  ten  pounds 
white  sugar  of  lead ;  put  it  into  a  barrel,  and  fill  it  up  with 
water. 

To  prepare  ten  pieces,  take  one  pailful  of  the  copperas  and 
lead  solution,  add  it  to  the  tub  you  are  to  prepare  in  ;  now  add 
five  pounds  blue  vitriol  to  it,  and  the  clear  liquor  from  one 
pail  of  sumac.  Run  the  pieces  one  and  a  half  hours  at  a  boil. 
Take  out,  air  well,  and  leave  until  next  day  to  finish. 

This  preparation  can  be  kept  until  you  run  forty  pieces  ; 
after  that  throw  it  away. 

For  each  succeeding  ten  pieces  use  one  pail  of  the  copperas 
and  lead  solution,  five  pounds  blue  vitriol,  and  the  clear  liquor 
from  one  pail  of  sumac,  as  stated  above. 
Finishins:  or  roller-tub — 
To  set :  100  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood, 
100  lbs.  Soda-ash, 
22  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 


540  TUE   A3IERICAX   DYER. 

Take  five  pieces  at  a  time,  give  them  five  ends,  then  take 
them  out  and  air  them  ;  re-enter  them  and  give  them  five  more 
ends ;  take  out  and  wash  ofi"  the  next  day.     This  tub  is  kept 
on  the  boil  all  the  time  the  pieces  are  in  it. 
For  the  next  five  pieces,  add  to  the  tub — 
13  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood, 
13  lbs.  Soda-ash, 
1|  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol, 
and  proceed  as  for  the  first  five  pieces. 

Should  the  pieces  come  out  a  little  on  the  purple  shade, 
reduce  the  dyestufis  to 

10  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood, 

10  lbs.  Soda-ash, 
If  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 

To  get  a  blue-black,  use — 

4  lbs.  Extract  of  Hemlock, 
8  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood, 

11  lbs.  Soda-ash, 
21  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol, 

for  each  five  pieces'. 

To  set  for  a  blue-black — 

80  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood, 

25  lbs.  Extract  of  Hemlock, 

90  lbs.  Soda-ash, 

25  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
This  makes  a  splendid  blue-black  on  these  kinds  of  goods. 

Prussian  Blue. 
Six  pieces  Cloth,  300  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

40  lbs.  Red  Prussiate  of  Potash, 
8  oz.    Nitric  Acid, 
6  oz.    Sulphuric  Acid. 
Enter  at  140°,  and  bring  to  a  boil  slowly,  and  boil  half  an 
hour. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  541 

Finish  with  two  hundred  pounds  chip  h)gwood,    boil  oiif 
the  logwood,  cool  down  to  170°,  then  add — 
4  lbs.  Tin  Crystals, 
4  lbs.  Oxalic  Acid, 
4  lbs.  Tartar. 
Rake  up  well.     Enter  cloth,  and  bring  to  a  boil,  and  boil 
one  hour. 

Rich  Full  Blue. 
Six  pieces  heavy  Beavers,  330  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

13  lbs.     Alum, 
4  lbs.     Oxalic  Acid, 
1  quart  Scarlet  Spirits, 
1  pint    Ammt)nia, 
60  lbs.     Chip  Logwood. 
Boil  out  first;  then  cool  down,  and  add  the  spirits,  ammo- 
nia, alum,  and  acid.     Rake  up  and  enter  cloth.     Boil  for  one 
and  a  half  hours  ;  take  out  and  wash  off. 

To  make  the  scarlet  spirits  :  Take  thirty-four  pounds  water, 
add  to  it  seventeen  pounds  nitric  acid,  and  three  pounds  mu- 
riatic acid  ;  add  five  pounds  feathered  tin.  Gradually,  when  it 
is  all  dissolved,  add  to  it  four  and  a  half  pounds  oil  of  vitriol; 
stir  up  well ;  do  not  use  it  until  it  has  been  made  twenty-four 
hours. 

Prussian  Blue. 
500  lbs.  Worsted  Serges. 

Prepare  with — 

40  lbs.  Red  Prussiate  of  Potash, 
4  lbs.  Oil  of  Vitriol, 
4  lbs.  Nitric  Acid. 
Enter  at  140°.     Bring  up  to  a  boil  graduall}',  and  boil  one 
hour.     Take  out  and  air  well.  * 


542  THE   AJ^IEEICAN   DYER. 

Finish  with —     . 

300  lbs.  Chip  Logwood. 
Boil  it  out.     Then  cool  clown,  and  add  to  it  — 
5  lbs.  Tin  Crystals, 

5  lbs.  Alum, 

2  lbs.  Oxalic  Acid. 

Enter,  and  bring  to  a  boil,  and  boil  one  and  one-fourth 
hours.     Take  out,  and  wash  off. 

Light  Blue. 
4  pieces  Worsted  Warps,  210  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

1^  lbs.  Chrome, 

7  lbs.  Alum,  . 

3  lbs.  Oxalic  Acid, 
2  lbs.  Tin  Crystals. 

Enter  cloth,  and  boil  one  and  one-half  hours. 
Finish  with  — 

30  lbs.  Chip  Logwood. 
Enter  cloth  at  180"^.     Bring  up  to  a  boil,  and  boil  one  and 
one-fourth  hours.     Speck-dye  at  120°  heat. 

Black. 
4  pieces,  15  ounces  per  yard,  150  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

16  lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 

8  lbs.  Chip  Logwood. 

Boil  these  one  and  one-half  hours.     Then  add — 

6  lbs.  Copperas, 

6  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 

Rake  up.     Boil  cloth  one  and  three-fourths  hours. 
Finish  with  — 

130  lbs.  Chip  Logwood, 

7  lbs.  Chip  Fustic. 

Boil  cloth  one  and  one-half  hours. 


THE   AMERICAN  DYER.  543 

Prussian  Blue  (ludigo  Shade). 
100  lbs.  Beaver  Cloth. 

Prepare  with — 

6  11)8.  Red  Prussiate  of  Potash, 
1  quart  Muriatic  Acid, 

1  quart  Oil  of  Vitriol, 
70  lbs.  Chip  Logwood. 

Boil  out  the  logwood.  Then  cool  down  to  140°,  and  add 
the  prussiate  and  the  acids.  Enter  the  cloth  ;  put  on  the 
steam,  and  boil  to  a  good  green  color.  Then  take  it  out,  and 
air  well. 

Add  to  the  liquor  — 

2  lbs.  Tin  Crystals, 
4  lbs.  Alum, 

1  lb.  Oxalic  Acid. 
Rake  up  well.     Enter  the  cloth,  and  boil  for  one  hour,  or 
till  the  shade  suits  you. 

.  Blue  Worsted  Warp. 
2  pieces,  50  yards,  104  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

I  lb.  Chrome, 

3  lbs.  Alum, 

1^  lbs.  Oxalic  Acid, 
lib.  Tin  Crystals. 
Boil  cloth  one  and  one-half  hours. 

Finish  with  — 

20  lbs.  Chip  Logwood. 
Enter  cool,  and  boil  one  hour.     Then  speck-dye  in  cold 
speck-dye. 


544  THE  america:n'  dyer. 

Black. 

4  pieces,  28  ounces  per  yard,  200  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

6  lbs.  Chrome, 

5  Ibs.-Blue  Vitriol, 
2  lbs.  Tartarine. 

Boil  cloth  one  and  three-fourths  hours. 

Finish  with  — 

130  lbs.  Chip  Logwood, 
20  lbs.  Chip  Fustic. 
Boil  cloth  one  and  one-half  hours. 

Olive. 
6  pieces  Beavers  ;  weight,  264  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

6  lbs.  Chrome, 

6  lbs.  Tartarine. 
Boil  one  and  one-half  hours. 

Finish  with  — 

90  lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 

12  lbs.  Madder, 

45  lbs.  Chip  Logwood. 
Boil  two  hours.     Air  the  cloth  well,  and  wash  off. 

Green  Olive. 
*6  pieces  Beavers,  246  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

6  lbs.  Chrome, 

6  lbs.  Tartarine. 
Boil  cloth  one  aud  one-half  hours. 


THE   AMERICAN    DYER.  5^5 


Finish  with  — 

65  11)3.  Chip  Fustic, 
12  lbs.  Madder, 
15  lbs.  Camwood, 
33  lbs.  Chip  Logwood. 

Boil  cloth  two  hours.     Wash  off. 


Brown  Olive. 
6  pieces  Beavers,  240  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

6  lbs.  Chrome, 

6  lbs.  Tartarine. 
Boil  cloth  one  and  one-half  hours.     Air  well. 

Finish  with  — 

100  lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 

18  lbs.  Madder, 

38  lbs.  Chip  Hypernic, 

16  lbs.  Logwood. 
Boil  cloth  two  hours.     Air  well,  and  wash  oflf. 

Broavn. 
6  pieces  Beavers,  260  lbs, 

Prepare  with — 

6  lbs.  Chrome, 

6  lbs.  Tartarine. 
Boil  cloth  one  and  one-half  hours. 

Finish  with  — 

75  lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 

12  lbs.  :Madder, 

40  lbs.  Camwood. 
Boil  cloth  two  hours.     Then  sadden  with  twelve  lbs.  cop- 
peras, and  boil  a  half  hour  longer. 

69 


546  THE    AMEKICAX    DYEK. 

Red  Brown. 
6  pieces  Beavers,  260  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

6  lbs.  Chrome, 
2  lbs.  Tartarine. 
Boil  the  cloth  one  and  one-half  hours. 
Finish  with  — 

130  lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 

18  lbs.  Madder, 
100  lbs.  Chip  Hypernic, 
10  lbs.  Chip  Logwood. 
Boil  the  cloth  one  and  three-fourths  hours.     Then  sadden 
with- two  lbs.  blue  vitriol,  and  boil  one  hour  longer. 

Eeddish  Brown. 
6  pieces  Beavers. 

Prepare  with — 

5^  lbs.  Chrome, 
4    lbs.  Tartarine. 
Boil  the  cloth  one  and  three-fourths  hours.    Air  well.    Then 
Finish  with  — 

100  lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 
13  lbs.  Madder, 
10  lbs.  Chip  Logwood, 
100  lbs.  Chip  Hypernic. 
Boil  the  cloth  one  and  three-fourths  hours.     Then  sadden 
with  three  lbs.  blue  vitriol,  and  boil  one  hour  lonjrer. 

Dahlia. 
6  pieces  Chinchilla,  482  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

8    lbs.  Chrome, 

7\  lbs.  Tartarine. 
Boil  the  cloth  one  and  three-quarters  hours. 


THE   A^IERICAX   DYER.  547 

Finish  with  — 

48  lbs.  Ground  Hy pernio, 

10  lbs.  Cudbear, 

10  lbs.  Extract  of  Hypernic, 

15  lbs.  Ground  Logwood. 
Boil  the  cloth  two  hours.     Next  day,  speck-dye  at  120°, 
and  "rive  four  ends.     Wash  off. 


Dahlia. 
6  pieces  Beavers,  252  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

G  lbs.  Chrome, 

4  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol, 

2  lbs.  Oxalic  Acid, 

1  quart  Oil  of  Vitriol. 
Boil  the  cloth  one  and  one-half  hours. 
Finish  with  — 

90  lbs.  Chip  Hypernic, 

6  lbs.  Cudbear, 
30  lbs.  Camwood, 

7  lbs.  Chip  Logwood. 

Boil  the  cloth  two  hours.     Wash  off  in  fuller's  earth. 


Claret. 
6  pieces  Beavers,  252  lbs. 

Prepare  with — ^ 

61^  lbs.  Chrome, 
6|  lbs.  Tartarine. 
Boil  the  cloth  one  and  three-fourths  hours. 
Finish  with  — 

180  lbs.  Camwood, 
15  lbs.  Logwood, 
15  lbs.  Fustic. 


548  THE   AKERICAX   DYEK. 

Boil  the  cloth  two  hours.     Then  sadden  with 

3^  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol, 

6  lbs.  Copperas. 
Boil  one  half-hour.     Wash  off. 


FELT  GOODS. 

Aniline  Colors. — Blues. 
Guernsey  (reddish). 
Eight  pieces  Felts,  160  lbs. 

1  lb.  7  oz.  single  B  Guernsey  blue, 
li  lbs.         Sal  soda. 
Enter  the  cloth  at  190°,  bring  up  to  a  boil,  and  boil  one 
hour. 

It  is  immaterial  whether  you  wash  off  from  this  or  not. 
Develop  in  a  bath  at  120°,  to  wh!ch  add  one  gallon  oil  of  vit- 
riol ;  run  the  cloth  at  this  temperature  for  half  au  hour ;  take 
out  and  wash  the  cloth  in  cold  water. 

If  you  should  wish  for  a  very  dark  shade,  top  the  above  off 
in  a  fresh  bath  at  200°,  with  seven  ounces  Hoffmann  two  B's 
violet,  which  produces  a  very  handsome  shade. 

China  and  Serge  Blue. 

Four  pieces  Felt,  80  lbs. 

Dissolve  ten  ounces  China  blue  crystals  in  two  pails  of 
hot  water,  with  one  pound  oil  vitriol ;  add  this  to  the  dye- 
tub  ;  then  dissolve  ten  ounces  serge  blue  in  the  same  amount 
of  water,  but  do  not  use  any  acid.  Add  this  to  the  tub,  rake 
it  up,  then  add  one  pound  more  of  oil  vitriol ;  rake  up,  enter 
cloth  at  130°,  run  and  boil  for  half  an  .hour.  Take  out  and 
wash  off. 

Nicholson  Blue. 

Ten  pieces  Felt,  200  lbs. 

Dissolve  two  and  three-quarters  pounds  refined  borax ;  add 
it  to  the  tub.     Dissolve  one  pound  six  ounces  Nicholson  four 


THE   A3IERICAN    DYER.  549 

B's  fast  blue  ;  add  it  to  the  tub.  Enter  tlie  cloth  at  130°,  heat 
up  to  190°,  run  for  half  an  hour,  take  out  and  air  well.  De- 
velop in  a  fresh  bath  at  120°,  to  which  add  two  quarts  oil 
vitriol ;  run  the  cloth  twenty  minutes,  take  out  and  wash  off. 

China  Blue  (new). 

Eight  pieces  Felt,  160  lbs. 

Dissolve  one  pound  China  blue  crystals  with  two  pounds 
diluted  oil  vitriol ;  add  it  to  the  tub.  Then  dissolve  fourteen 
ounces  more  of  the  crystals  in  the  same  amount  of  acid ;  add 
this  also  to  the  tub.  Then  add  twelve  pounds  oil  vitriol ; 
rake  up  the  tub  well.  Enter  the  cloth  at  130°  ;  run  the  cloth 
at  a  boil  for  fifteen  minutes;  take  out  and  wash  off. 

Nicholson  Blue. 

Eight  pieces  Felt,  112  lbs. 

Dissolve  two  pounds  borax  ;  add  to  the  tub.  Dissolve  one 
pound  fourteen  ounces  Nicholson  fast  blue,  three  B's.  Pro- 
ceed as  for  the  other  Nicholson  blue.  Develop  in  fresh  bath 
at  130°,  to  which  add  three  quarts  oil  vitriol;  run  cloth 
twenty  minutes  ;  take  out  and  wash  off. 

For  the  next  eight  pieces,  add  to  tirst  tub  twenty-five  ounces 
Nicholson  three  B's.  To  developing-tul)  add  three  pints  oil 
vitriol ;  and  the  same  for  every  eight  pieces  thereafter. 

Silver  Drab. 

Eight  pieces  Felt,  160  lbs. 

Dissolve  half  a  pound  silver-drab  crystals  in  half  a  pint  of 
acetic  acid  ;  add  it  to  the  tub.  Add  also  one  quart  oil  vitriol ; 
rake  up  the  solution  well.  Enter  the  cloth  at  120°,  bring  up 
to  a  boil,  and  boil  one  hour;  take  out  and  wash  off. 

If  you  should  want  a  bluer  shade,  use  more  oil  vitriol.  If 
wanted  more  on  the  lavender  shade,  use  no  oil  vitriol. 

Another  Shade  of  the  Same  Color. 
Proceed  as  above,  and  when  you  reel  ui)  the  cloth  add  to 
the  bath  four  pounds  madder ;  boil  it  for  five  minutes,  then 


550  THE   AMEEICAX    DYEK. 

add  three  ounces  of  copperas.     Drop  the  cloth  in  a^ain,  and 
boil  for  half  an  hour;  take  out  and  wash  off. 

These  drabs  can  be  varied  by  adding  more  madder.  An- 
other very  good  shade  is  obtained  by  using  nine  pounds  of 
madder. 

Violet. 

Eight  pieces  Felt,  IGO  lbs. 

Dissolve  thirteen  ounces  Hoffmann  two  B's  in  hot  water; 
add  to  the  bath  ;  rake  up  well.  Enter  the  cloth  at  110°,  run 
twenty  minutes,  bring  up  to  140°,  take  up  the  cloth  on  the 
reel.  Then  add  to  the  tub  thirteen  ounces  more  of  the  crys- 
tals, dissolved  as  before  ;  run  cloth  ten  minutes,  then  bring 
up  to  190°  ;  run  for  ten  minutes  more  ;  take  out  and  wash  off. 

For  other  violets,  if  wanted  bhier,  use  oil  of  vitriol  with 
the  dye.  The  marks  of  violets  are  :  the  more  B's,  the  bluer 
the  shade  they  give. 

Scarlet. 
100  lbs.  Felt  Cloth,  4  pieces. 

10  lbs.  Cochineal, 
2t  lbs.  Tin  Crystals, 
2^  lbs.  Oxalic  Acid, 

I  lb.  Flavine, 
2i  lbs.  Tartar, 
21  pints  Muriate  of  Tin. 
Boil  these  for  tifteeu  minutes  ;  then  cool  down  tub ;   enter 
cloth  ;  put   on    steam  and  boil   forty  minutes ;  take  out  and 
wash  off.     This  is  a  splendid  shade. 

Scarlet  (more  on  the  red  shade  than  the  above). 
100  lbs.  Felts,  4  pieces. 

11  lbs.  Cochineal, 

41  lbs.  Taitarine  (see  article  Tartar), 
4  ounces  Flavine, 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  551 

1  11).  Oxalic  Acid, 

1  ounce  Roseine, 

2  quarts  JNIuriate  of  Tin. 

Proceed  as  above.     Boil  one  hour  and  wash  off. 


Scarlet. 
160  lbs.  Felts,  8  pieces. 

12  lbs.  Cochineal, 

1  lb.    Flavine, 

4  lbs.  Refined  Tartar, 

2  lbs.  Oxalic  Acid, 

6  quarts  Scarlet  Spirits. 
Boil  these  for  fifteen  minutes.     Cool  down  to  140°.     Enter 
cloth.     Put  on  steam  and  boil  three-fourths  hour.     Wash  off. 


Scarlet. 
140  lbs.  Felts,  6  pieces. 

10  lbs.  Cochineal, 
4  lbs.  Tartarine, 
1|  lbs.  Oxalic  Acid, 

10  ounces  Flavine, 
6  quarts  Muriate  of  Tin. 
Proceed  as  above,  and  boil  one  hour. 

Pearl-Drab. 
104  lbs.  Felts,  4  pieces. 

Prepare  with — 

2^  lbs.  Chrome, 

2^  lbs.  Alum, 

2i  lbs.  Tartarine. 
Boil  cloth  one  and  a  half  hours. 


552  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

Finish  with — 

7  ounces  Nutgalls, 

7  ounces  Ground  Logwood, 

1^  ounces  Cudbear, 

11^  ounces  Ground  Fustic. 
Boil  these  twenty  minutes.     Enter  cloth  and  boil  one  hour. 

Lead-Drab. 
100  lbs.  Felts,  4  pieces. 

Prepare  as  for  pearl-drab. 

Finish  with — 

2|  lbs.  Ground  Logwood, 

2\  lbs..  Nutgalls, 

6  ounces  Cudbfear. 
Proceed  in  all  respects  as  for  pearl-drab. 

Bright  Blue. 
100  lbs.  Felts,  4  pieces. 

Prepare  with — 

1  lb.  Chrome, 

2^  lbs.  Alum, 

1^  lbs.  Oxalic  Acid. 
Boil  cloth  one  and  a  half  hours. 

Finish  with — 

16  lbs.  Chip  Logwood. 

Boil  for  one  and  a  half  hours,  then  add  three  ounces  Hoff- 
mann's 2  B's  violet.  Enter  cloth  at  170°  Fahr.  Put  on 
steam  and  boil  one  and  one-fourth  hours. 


Nicholson  Blue  (Cotton  back). 
4  pieces,  92  lbs. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  553 

10  ounces  Guernsey  blue,  A, 

1  lb.  Sodii-ash, 

2  ounces  Hoffmann's  2  B's,  violet. 

Enter  cloth  as  180°,  put  on  steam,  and  boil  three-fourths 
of  an  hour. 

Develop  at  120°  Fahr.  with— 

2  quarts  Oil  of  Vitriol. 
Run  cloth  three-fourths  of  an  hour.    Take  out  and  wash  off. 


Olive. 

175  lbs.  Felts,  8  pieces. 

Prepare  with — 

5  lbs.  Chrome, 
4  lbs.  AJum. 

Boil  cloth  one  and  three-fourths  hours  next  day. 

Finish  with — 

56  lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 
40  lbs.  Madder, 

6  lbs.  Logwood. 

Boil  these  one  and  a  half  hours.     Cool  down.     Enter  cloth 
and  boil  one  and  a  half  hours. 


A  Rich  Olive. 
250  lbs.  Felts,  10  pieces. 

Prepare  with — 

7  lbs.  Chrome, 

7  lbs.  Glauber  Salts, 

5  lbs.  Oil  of  Vitriol. 

Boil  cloth  one  and  a  half  hours. 
70 


554  THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 

Finish  with — 

75  lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 
70  lbs.  Madder, 
20  lbs.  Chip  Logwood, 
60  lbs.  Camwood. 
Boil  all  these  two  hours,  then  cool  down  and  add  five  lbs. 
glauber  salts.     Enter  cloth.     Put  on  steam,  and  boil  one  and 
three-fourths  hours. 

If  the  felts  have  many  burrs  or  specks,  you  must  speck- 
dye  them  with  sumac  and  copperas,  cold — first,  in  a  sumac- 
bath,  then  in  the  copperas-bath. 


Dark  Green. 
200  lbs.  Felts,  8  pieces. 

Prepare  with — 

3  lbs.  Chrome, 
10  lbs.  Alum, 
10  lbs.  Glauber  Salts, 
5  lbs.  Oxalic  Acid, 
5  lbs.  Tin  Crystals, 
5  lbs.  Oil  of  Vitriol. 
Boil  cloth  one  and  a  half  hours,  then  take  out  and  wash  off. 

Finish  with — 

23  lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 
20  lbs.  Chip  Logwood, 
13  lbs.  Extract  of  Indigo. 
Boil  the  fustic  and  logwood  one  and  a  half  hours ;  then 
add  the   indigo.      Boil    fifteen    minutes.     Cool  down,  enter 
cloth,  and  boil  two  hours. 


Green. 
126  lbs.  Felts,  7  pieces. 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  555 

15  lbs.  Alum, 
10  lbs.  Extract  of  Indigo, 
2  lbs.  Picric  Acid. 
Boil  these  for  twenty  minutes  ;  then   cool  down  ;  enter  the 
cloth  and  boil  one  hour ;  then  speck-dye. 

Speck-Dye  for  Green  Felts. 

Take  3  pails  of  copperas  ;  dissolve  it  in  one  barrel  of  water. 
Into  a  tub  of  cold  water  put  15  quarts  of  this  solution  for  the 
first  7  pieces.  Give  them  4  ends.  Take  out  and  run  into 
the  other  tub.  For  the  next  7  pieces  add  seven  quarts  of  the 
copperas  solution,  and  procees  as  for  the  first  7  pieces.  For 
the  next  seven  pieces  use  4  quarts  of  the  solution  and  proceed 
as  before.     This  last  will  be  the  standard. 

Second  tub, — 

Dissolve  10  lbs.  red  prussiate  potash  in  a  half-barrel  of 
cold  water. 

Into  the  second  tub  (cold)  put,  for  first  7  pieces,  15  quarts 
of  prussiate  solution.  Give  6  ends.  For  second  7  pieces, 
7  quarts  prussiate  solution.  Give  6  ends.  For  next  7 
pieces,  4  quarts  prussiate  solution.     Give  6  ends. 

This  last  is  the  standard  for  the  second  tub. 

Wash  off  the  pieces  after  coming  out  of  the  prussiate-tub. 


THE   AArERICAN   DYER. 


ooT 


WOOL    SAMPLES. 


No.  1. 


No.  -J. 


No.  3, 
Sto.nk-Dkab. 


No.  4. 
Anilink  Drab. 


No.  5. 
Ykllow-Oijaxgk 


No.  6. 
Full  Ouanck 


No.  7. 
Lavkndkr. 


No.  8. 
Fast  Nicholson 

liLUK. 


No.  9. 

Fast  Nkuoi.sox 

I'lLUK,  Dakk. 


558 


THE   AMERICA^s^   DYER. 


WOOL    SAMPLES 


No.  10. 
Seal  Brown. 


Xo.  11. 
Browx. 


No.  12. 
Cixxamox-Bkowx. 


No.  14.    . 

No.  13. 

Light  Cix'xamox- 

No.  15. 

Olive. 

Browx. 

Red-Browx 

No.  16. 
Olive-Brown^ 


No.  17. 

Dark  Cardixal- 

Red. 


No.  18. 
Blue-Violet. 


*t;i.*"^<': 


m 


t 


THE    AMERICAN   DYET{. 


559 


WOOL    SAMPLES. 


No.  11). 
Blue. 


No.  20. 
Plum. 


No.  21. 
Ghf.kn. 


No.  22. 
Smokk-Gukkx. 


No.  2.3. 
IJluk-Gkkex. 


No.  24. 
Fi'L^  Okkkn. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  561 

REMARKS  ON  RECIPES  FOR  WOOL. 

The  number  of  pomuls  for  each  recipe,  is  for  wool  in  the 
grease  (that  is,  wool  before  it  is  scoured),  unless  otherwise 
stated  in  the  recipe.  The  wool  in  all  cases  should  be  well 
poled  before  the  steam  is  turned  on,  and  during  the  time  it  is 
boiling,  it  is  a  very  good  plan  to  shift  the  position  of  it  in  the 
tub,*by  using  the  pole  once  or  twice  during  the  ebullition. 

We  have  given  but  few  samples  of  colors,  but  there  is 
enough  for  a  guide,  as  a  dyer  can  vary  the  materials  of  the 
diflferent  recipes,  according  to  his  judgment,  so  as  to  obtain 
the  shade  desired,  by  comparing  his  sample  with  sample  in 
the  book,  and  making  such  variations  as  required,  either  in 
the  yellow,  blue,  or  red  coloring  materials. 

The  dye-woods  must  be  boiled  one  and  a  half  hours  before 
entering  the  wool,  and  the  same  time  for  the  wool,  unless 
otherwise  stated  in  the  recipe.  All  the  ground  woods  should 
be  thrown  into  the  tub  loose,  except  camwood,  sanders,  and 
barwood,  if  in  large  quantities,  which  must  be  sprinkled  upon 
the  wool  before  it  is  thrown  into  the  tub. 

When  coloring  yellow  and  other  light  shades,  be  particular 
to  have  the  tub  thoroughly  cleaned,  and  everything  connected 
with  the  dyeing  of  them  perfectly  clean.  After  preparing  the 
wool,  do  not  tinish  until  the  next  day,  as  the  colors  will  be 
more  intense  and  brighter  by  so  doing. 


RECIPES  FOR  WOOL,  WITH  SAMPLES. 
Granite-Drab. 
No.  1.     Fifth  quality  American,  350  lbs. 

4  lbs.  Ground  Logwood, 
^Ib.    Cudbear, 
6  oz.    Nutgalls, 
71 


562  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

1  lb.    Ground  Fustic, 
1  lb.    Red  Tartar. 
After  boiling  these  half  an  hour,  enter  the  wool  very  quickly, 
and  pole  up  well.      (The  tartar  should  not  be  put  in  until  the 
other  materials  are  boiled  out  for  half  an  hour.) 

After  boiling  the  wool  for  one  and  a  half  hours,   sadden 
with — 

1  lb.  Blue  Vitriol, 
1  lb.  Red  Tartar, 
3  oz.  Copperas. 
Boil  half  an  hour ;  then  draw  off  and  throw  out. 

Drab. 
No.  2.     Third  Fleece,  300  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

7  lbs.  Ground  Logwood, 

1  lb.    Nutgalls, 

2  lbs.  Sumac, 

3  lbs.  Red  Sanders, 
41  lbs.  Madder, 

11  lbs.  Ground  Fustic. 
Boil  these  twenty  minutes  ;  enter  wool,  and  boil  one  and  a 
half  hours.     Sadden  with — 
2^  lbs.  Copperas, 
I  lb.    Alum. 
Boil  half  an  hour,  then  draw  off. 

Stone-Drab  . 
No.  3.     Fifth  Fleece,  300  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

1|  lbs.  Nutgalls, 
2    lbs.  Ground  Logwood, 
1|  lbs.  Ground  Fustic, 
11^  lbs.  Madder, 
f  lb.    Sumac. 


THE   AMEBIC AI^  DYER.  5G3 

Boil  and  proceed  as  for  No.  2  ;  then  sadden  with — 

1  lb.    Alum, 

1  lb.    Red  Tartar, 

I  lb.    Copperas. 
Boil  half  an  hour,  than  draw  off. 

Aniline  Drab. 
No.  4.     Third  Fleece,  316  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

10  oz.  Silver-Gray  Crystals  (Poirrier). 

Dissolve  it  in  half  a  pint  acetic  acid  ;  heat  the  tub  to  150"^ 
Fahr.  ;  add  to  it  one  quart  of  oil  of  vitriol ;  stir  it  up  ;  then 
add  the  dissolved  crystals,  and  rake  up  well ;  enter  the  wool, 
turn  on  the  steam,  and  pole  until  it  comes  to  the  boil,  and  boil 
one  and  a  half  hours.  This  comes  out  a  little  uneven,  but 
does  not  show  it  after  being  carded. 

Yellow-Orange, 
No.  5.     Third  Fleece,  20  lbs.  clean. 

Prepare  with — 

7  oz.  Flavine, 

^  oz.  Purpurine. 
Boil  these  for  half  an  hour,  then  cool  down,  and  add — 

I  lb.  Tin  Crystals, 

I  lb.  Muriate  of  Tin, 

\  lb.  Oxalic  Acid. 
Rake  up  well ;  enter  the  wool ;  pole  up  well.     Boil  half  an 
hour  ;  take  out  and  wash  off. 

Full  Orange. 
No.  6.     Third  Fleece  clean  Wool,  100  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

4  lbs.  Flavine, 
10  oz.    Purpurine. 


564:  THE   AMEKICAX   DYER. 

Proceed' as  with  No.  5,  then  add — 
3  lbs.  Tiu  Crystals, 
2i  lbs.  Oxalic  Acid. 
Enter  wool,  turn  on  steam,  and  pole  up  until  the  wool  be- 
comes even.     Boil  half   an   hour.     This  color  improves  in 
fulling  and  scouring,  becoming  brighter.     It  is    a  perfectly 
fast  color,  as  regards  light  and  alkalies. 

If  the  water  which  you  have  to  use  contains  lime,  less  pur- 
purine  will  produce  the  shade. 

Lavender. 
No.  7.     Third  Australian,  clean  Wool,  80  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

2  lbs.  Alum, 

3  lbs.  Red  Tartar, 

1  lb'.    Oil  of  Vitriol. 
Boil  wool  one  hour. 

Finish  with — 

1  lb.    Hoffmann  Violet,  3  B's, 

^  lb.    Extract  of  Indigo  (Chemic). 
Boil  wool  half  an  hour.     Leave  it  in  the  bath  five  hours. 
If  it  should  not  come  up  red  enough  to  suit  you,  sadden 
with  one  pound  alum. 

Fast  Nicholson  Blue. 
No.  8.     Third  American,  clean  fleece  Wool,  25  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

2  lbs.  Chrome, 
1^  lb.    Alum, 

1  lb.    Tin  Crystals, 
1  lb.    Red  Tartar. 
Boil  wool  one  hour. 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  565 

Finish  with — 

1^  oz.  Hoflfmann  Violet,  3  B's, 
\l  oz.  Nicholson'sBlue,  4  B's. 
Boil  wool  one  hour.     Take  out  and  develop  in  fresh  bath, 
with  one  pint  oil  of  vitriol.     Heat  200°  Fahr.,  pole  up  well, 
and  leave  in  for  one  hour.     Wash  off. 


Fast  Nicholson  Blue  (Dark). 
No.  9.     Third  Fleece,  cleau  Wool,  20  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

4  oz.  Fast  Nicholson's  Blue,  4  B's, 

1  lb.  Sal-soda. 
Enter  wool  at  190  Fahr.     Bring  to  a  boil,  and  boil  half  an 
hour. 

Finish  in  fresh  bath  with — 

If  lbs.  Oil  of  Vitriol, 
1  oz.  Hoffmann  Violet,  2  B's. 
Enter  wool  at  150°  Fahr.     Put  on  steam  and  boil  half  an 
hour.     Then   sadden  with   quarter  of  a  pound   of  copperas, 
and  boil  half  tin  hour  longer.     Take  out  and  wash  off. 


Seal  Brown. 
No.  10.     100  lbs.  clean  Wool,  4th  Fleece. 

Prepare  with — 

3  lbs.  Chrome, 

3  lbs.  Tartarine,* 

I  lb.    Oxalic  Acid. 
Boil  wool  one  and  a  half  hours. 

*  Tartarine  is  a  substitute  for  tartar.  If  you  do  not  have  it,  use  five 
pouuils  of  half-refined  tartar  in  phice  of  tartarine.     (See  article,  Tartar.) 

Where  tartarine  is  mentioned  in  the  recipe,  and  you  have  not  got  it,  use 
half-refined  tartar,  one-third  more  than  weight  of  tartarine. 


56G  THE  amekica:n^  dyee. 

Finish  with — 

66  lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 
7  Jibs.  Logwood, 
22  lbs.  Madder, 
22  lbs.  Camwood, 
6  lbs.  Red  Sanders. 

Boil  these  one  and   a  half  hours,  and  boil  the  wool  two 
hours.     Then  sadden  with — 

1  lb.    Copperas, 

f  lb.    Blue  Vitriol, 

2  lbs.  Ground  Logwood. 
Boil  wool  half  an  hour  longer. 

Brown. 
No.  IL     496  lbs.  4th  American  Fleece. 

Prepare  with — 

5^  lbs.  Chrome, 
5    lbs.  Tartarine, 
1    lb.    Oxalic  Acid. 
Boil  wool  one  and  a  half  hours.  • 

Finish  with — 

130  lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 
30  lbs.  Madder, 
20  lbs.  Red  Sanders, 
55  lbs.  Camwood, 
5  lbs.  Logwood. 

Boil  wool  two  hours ;  then  sadden  with — 
10  lbs.  Copperas, 
4  lbs.  Ground  Logwood. 
Boil  half  an  hour  longer,  and  draw  off. 

Cinnamon-Brown. 
No.  12.     400  lbs.  Fall  California  (shrinkage,  64  percent.) 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  567 


Prepare  with — 

4  lbs.  Chrome, 

3^  lbs.  Alum. 
Boil  one  and  a  half  hours  ;  next  day 

Finish  with — 

65  lbs.  Camwood, 
11  lbs.  Madder, 
50  lbs.  Chip  Fustic. 

Boil  wool  two  hours.     Sadden  with — 
8    lbs..  Copperas, 
3|^lbs.  Ground  Logwood. 

Boil  half  an  hour  longer,  and  draw  off. 

Olive. 

No.  13.     200  lbs.  Clean  Wool. 

Prepare  with — 

G  lbs.  Chrome, 

6  lbs.  Tartarine. 
Boil  wool  two  hours. 

Finish  with —  ♦ 

80  lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 
15  lbs.  Madder, 

8  lbs.  Ground  Logwood, 
18  lbs.  Camwood. 

Boil  wool  two  hours ;  then  sadden  with— 

3  lbs.  Copperas, 

2  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Boil  half  an  hour  longer. 

Light  Cinnamon-Brown. 
No.  14.     330  lbs.  4th  Fleece. 


568  THE    AMERICAN   DTEK. 

Prepare  with — 

4  lbs.  Chrome, 

4  lbs.  Tartar, 

1  lb.    Oxalic  Acid. 

Finish  with — 

70  lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 
16  ll)s.  Madder, 
20  lbs.  Camwood, 
6  lbs.  Red  Sanders. 

Boil  wool  one  and  a  half  hours ;  then  sadden  with — 
1^  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol, 

2  lbs.  Copperas, 

3  lbs.  Ground  Logwood. 

Boil  three-quarters  of  an  hour,  and  draw  off. 

Red-Brown. 
No.  15.     425  lbs.  4th  Fleece. 

Prepare  with — 

4^  lbs.  Chrome, 
4^  lbs.  Tartarine. 

Finish  with — 

100  lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 
30  lbs.  Madder, 
15  lbs.  Red  Sanders, 
50  lbs.  Camwood, 

5  lbs.  Chip  Logwood. 

Boil  wool  one  and  three-quarter  hours  ;  then  sadden  with- 
3  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol, 
and  boil  half  an  hour  longer. 

Olive-Brown. 
No.  16.     325  lbs.  5th  Fleece. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  569 


Prepare  with — 

4  lbs.  Chrome, 
4  lbs.  Tartariue. 

Finish  with — 

40    lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 

4^  lbs.  Chip  Logwood, 

4    lbs.  Matlder, 
22    lbs.  Camwood. 

Boil  wool  two  hours  ;  then  sadden  with- 

U  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol, 

1    lb.    Copperas. 
Boil  half  an  hour. 


Dark  Cardinal-Red. 
No.  17.     50  lbs.  clean  Pulled  Wool. 

Prepare  with — •" 

15  lbs.  Alum, 

8  lbs.  Tartariue, 

2  lbs.  Sal-Aramoniac. 
Boil  wool  two  hours  ;  next  day 

Finish  with — 

14  lbs.  Cochineal. 
Boil  wool  two  hours ;  leave  it  in  the  dye  six  hours. 
This  is  a  perfectly  fast  color. 

Another  Cardinal-Red. 
75  lbs.  Clean  Wool. 

I  lb.    Flavine, 
12  oz.   Golden  Roseine. 
Enter  cool ;  bring  to  boil,  and  boil  one  hour. 
This  is  better  adapted  for  yarn  than  wool. 

72 


570  THE   AMERICAi^   DYER. 

Blue-Yiolet. 

No.  18.     80  lbs.  Cleau  Wool,  3d  Fleece. 

Prepare  with — 

3  lbs.  Chrome, 
3  lbs.  Alum, 

3  lbs.  Tartarine. 

Boil  wool  two  hours  ;  next  day 
Finish  with — 

1^  lbs.  Hoffmann's  4  B's  Violet  (Poirrier's). 
Boil  one  hour,  and  leave  it  in  the  tub  three  or  four  hours. 
This  color  resists  alkalies  and  sunshine  (light). 

Blue. 

No.  19.     500  lbs.  3d  Fleece. 

Prepare  with — 

1\  lbs.  Chrome, 
6  lbs.    Alum, 

4  lbs.    Oxalic  Acid, 

2  lbs.    Tartarine, 

I  lb.      Tin  Crystals. 
Boil  wool  one  and  a  half  hours. 
Finish  with — 

60  lbs.  Chip  Logwood, 

3  oz.  Hoffmann's  2  B's  Violet  (Poirrier's). 
Boil  one  and  three-quarters  hours. 

Plum. 

No.  20.     481  lbs.  3d  Fleece. 

Prepare  with — 

A  lbs.    Tartarine, 

4  lbs.    Oxalic  Acid, 
1\  lbs.  Alum. 

Boil  wool  one  and  a  half  hours ;   next  day 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  571 

Finish  with — 

75  lbs.  Chip  Logwood, 

15  lbs.  Hypernic, 

3  lbs.  Ciidbear. 

Boil  wool  one  and  three-quarters  hours ;  draw  off. 

Green. 
No.  21.     40  lbs.  Clean  Wool,  4th  Fleece. 

Prepare  with — 

2\  lbs.  Alum, 

4  oz.    Chrome, 

3.   oz.   Tin  Crystals. 
Boil  wool  one  and  three-quarters  hours. 

Finish  with — 

2^  lbs.     Ground  Fustic, 
7    lbs.     Extract  Indigo  (Chemic) , 
1    quart  Bran, 
1    quart  Salt  (Coarse). 
Boil  these  three-quarters  of  an  hour ;  then  cool  down  the 
tub.     Enter  the  wool ;  pole  up  well,  put  on  steam,  and  boil 
one  and  three-quarters  hours  ;  draw  off. 

Smoke-Green. 
No.  22.     400  lbs.  3d  Australian. 

Prepare  with — 

6    lbs.    Chrome, 

1^  pints  Oil  of  Vitriol, 

5  lbs.    Alum, 

1    lb.     Tin  Crystals. 
Boil  wool  two  hours.  , 

Finish  with — 

6' lbs.       Chip  Fustic, 

16  quarts  Salt, 


572  THE    A^IERICAN   DYER. 

58  lbs.  Extract  Indigo, 

25  lbs.  Bran, 

10  lbs.  Chip  Logwood. 

Boil  out  the  fustic,  bran  aud  logwood,  before  you    add  the 

indigo  aud  salt ;  then  boil  for  twenty  minutes  longer.     Cool 

down  the  tub,  then   enter  the  wool ;  pole  up  well,  and  boil 

one  and  three-quarters  hours  ;  after  which  you  will  sprinkle  on 

2  lbs.  Ground  Fustic, 

8  lbs.  Ground  Logwood. 
Boil  one  hour  longer,  then  draw  off,  and  throw   out  the 
wool  immediately. 

Note. — The  greeus  must  not  be  finished  off  until  the  dan  «/'"'  they  are 
prejmred. 

Blue-Green. 
No.  23.     Clean,  3  lbs. ;  Fleece,  120  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

6  lbs.  Alum, 
f  lb.  Chrome, 

1  lb.  Tin  Crystals. 

Boil  wool  one  and  three-fourths  hours. 
Finish  with — 

5  lbs.  Ground  Fustic, 

3  quarts  Bran, 

20  lbs.  Extract  of  Indigo, 
3  quarts  Salt. 
Proceed  as  for  No.    22.     Boil   wool    one  and   one-fourth 
hours,  or  to  shade. 

Full  Green. 
No.  24.     Fall  California   (shrinks  sixty-four    per  cent.), 
400  lbs. 

.Prepare  with — 

10    lbs.  Alum, 

2  lbs.  Chrome, 

2^  lbs.  Tin  Crystals. 
Boil  wool  two  hours. 


THE    AMERICAIT   DYER.  573 

Finish  with — 

25  lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 
8  lbs.  Chip  Logwood, 

2  pails  of  Bran, 

20  lbs.  Extract  of  Indigo, 
10  quarts  salt. 
Proceed  as  for  No.  22,  and  boil  wool   one   and   one-half 
hours.     Draw  off,  and  throw  out  the  wool. 

Golden-Brown. 
Fleece,  250  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

3  lbs.  Chrome, 

4  lbs.  Alum, 

3  lbs.  Tartar. 

Boil* wool  one  and  a  half  hours. 

Finish  with — 

56  lbs.  Chip  Fustic,* 

12  lbs.  Madder, 

18  lbs.  Camwood. 
Boil  drugs  one  and  a  half  hours.     Boil  wool  two  hours. 

A  Dark  Golden-Browt^. 
Fleece,  433  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

6  lbs.  Chrome, 

4  lbs.  Alum. 

Boil  wool  one  and  three-fourths  hours. 

Finish  with — 

130  lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 

64  lbs.  Camwood, 

16  lbs.  Logwood, 

20  lbs.  Madder. 
Proceed  as  above. 


574  THE   AlVIERICAN   DYER. 

Olive-Brown. 
Australian  Wool  (shrinks  sixty  per  cent.),  400  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

4^  lbs.  Chrome, 
3|  lbs.  Alum, 
3f  lbs.  Tartar. 
Boil  one  and  a  half  hours. 
Finish  with — 

60  lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 
30  lbs.  Camwood, 

7  lbs.  Madder, 

6  lbs.  Logwood. 
Boil  wool  one  and  three-fourths  hours. 
Sadden  with — 

5  lbs.  Copperas, 

1  lb.  Ground  Logwood.  * 
Boil  one  hour  longer. 

Ked-Brown. 
Third  Australian,  450  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

6|  lbs.  Chrome, 
6|  lbs.  Tartar, 

2  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Boil  wool  one  and  a  half  hours. 
Finish  with — 

130  lbs.  Chip  Fnstic, 
10  lbs.  Madder, 
40  lbs.  Camwood, 
10  lbs.  Red  Sanders, 

8  lbs.  Chip  Hypernic. 

Boil  drugs  one  and  a  half  hours.     Boil  wool  one  and  three- 
fourths  hours. 
'  By  saddening  this  with  six  lbs.  copperas  and  one  lb.  ground 
logwood,  you  will  obtain  a  good  olive-brown  color. 


THE   AMEltlCAN   DYER.  575 


Light  Olive. 
Second  Fleece,  300  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

5  lbs.  Chrome, 
5  lbs.  Red  Tartar, 

5  lbs.  Alum. 
Boil  wool  two  hours. 
Finish  with — 

80    lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 
10    lbs.  Chip  Logwood, 

7|  lbs.  Madder, 
10    lbs.  Camwood. 
Boil  wool  two  hours. 

Geeen-Olive. 
Third  Fleece,  500  lbs. 

« 
Prepare  with — 

8  lbs.  Chrome, 

8  lbs.  Red  Tartar. 

Finish  with — 

110  lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 

8  lbs.  Camwood, 

15  lbs.  Madder, 

20  lbs.  Chip  Logwood. 

Proceed  as  for  light  olive. 

Cinnamon  Color. 
Monteviedo  Wool,  500  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

6  lbs.  Chrome, 
6  lbs.  Alum, 

4  lbs.  Red  Tartar. 


576  THE   AMEKICAX  DYER. 

Finish  with — 

120  lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 
12  lbs.  Madder, 

24  lbs.  Camwood, 

25  lbs.  Chip  Hypernic. 
Boil  wool  two  hours. 


Yellow-Bronz  e. 
Fribs,  500  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

7  lbs.  Chrome, 

6  lbs.  Red  Tartar, 

6  lbs.  Alum.  • 

Finish  with — 

120  lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 

20  lbs.  Madder, 

10  lbs.  Logwood. 
Boil  the  wool  two  hours.     Leave  it  in  for  a  few  hours. 


Broxze, 
Third  Fleece,  600  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

7  lbs.  Chrome, 
6  lbs.  Tartar, 
6  lbs.  Alum. 

Finish  with — 

80  lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 
50  lbs.  Camwood, 

9  lbs.  Chip  Logwood, 
10  lbs.  Madder. 

Boil  wool  two  hours. 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  577 


Light  Bronze. 

Fribs,  500  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

7  lbs.  Chrome, 
4  lbs.  Red  Tartar. 

Finish  with — 

64  lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 
10  lbs.  Matkler, 

1  lb.    Ground  Logwood. 
Boil  wool  one  and  a  half  hours. 

Light  Stains  or  Shades  —  Yellow  Stain. 
450  lbs.  Second  Fleece. 

Prepare  with — 

2  lbs.  Chrome, 

2  lbs.  Red  Tartar. 

Finish  with — 

4    lbs.  Ground  Fustic, 

1^  lbs.  Camwood, 

1    lb.    Madder. 
Boil  the  wool  in  each  bath  one  and  a  half  hours. 

Pink  Stain. 
60  lbs.  Cape  Wool,  clean. 

Prepare  with — 

3  oz.  Ground  Logwood, 
3  oz.  Ground  Fustic, 

^  oz.  Cudbear. 
Boil  the  drugs  fifteen  minutes  ;  then  cool  down  ;  enter  the 
wool ;  bring  to  a  l)oil  only  ;  shut  off  the  steam  and  let  it  re- 
main in  the  solution  for  one  hour. 
73 


578  THE   A^klERICAN   DYER. 

Pearl  Stain. 
300  lbs.  Second  Fleece. 

4  lbs  Ground  Logwood. 

Boil  it  for  fifteen  minutes.  Enter  the  wool ;  pole  up  well; 
boil  one  and  a  half  hours  ;  sadden  with  one  lb.  copperas  ;  boil 
one-half  hour  lonjjer. 

These  three  are  nice  stains. 

Drab  Stain. 
350  lbs.  Fourth  Cape  Wool. 

Prepare  with — 

2  lbs.  Chrome, 
1  lb.    Tartar, 
1  lb.    Alum. 

Finish  with — 

26    oz.   Ground  Fustic, 

1^  lbs.  Nutgalls, 
18    oz.   Brazilwood, 
14    oz.    Ground  Logwood. 
Boil  the  wool  one  and  a  half  hours ;  then  sadden   with  six 
oz.  copperas.     Boil  one-half  hour. 

Lavender. 
225  lbs.  American  Fleece. 

Color  in  the  vat  to  one-third  blue;  wash  off  the  wool, 
and 

Finish  with — 

4  oz.  Cochineal, 

5  oz.  Madder, 
8^  oz.  Cudbear, 


THE    AMEPJCAIT   DYER.  579 

10    oz.  Ground  Logwood, 

1|  oz.  Nutgalls, 
16    oz.  Alum, 
9    oz.  White  Tartar. 
Boil  the  wool  one  and  a  half  hours  ;  then  sadden  with  four 
and  a  half  oz.  copperas  and  boil  one  hour  longer. 

Lavender. 
400  lbs.  Second  Fleece. 

4    lbs.  Ground  Logwood, 
1|  lbs.  Cudbear. 
Boil  these  one-half  hour ;  then  add  one-half  lb.  cream  of 
tartar.     Boil  the  wool  one  and  a  half  hours. 

Sadden  with — 

I  oz.  Copperas, 
4  oz.  Alum. 

Boil  one-half  hour  longer. 

Dark   Lavender. 
200  lbs.  American  Fleece. 

Color  in  the  vat  to  one-third  blue ;  then  wash  off,  and 

Finish  with — 

11^  lbs.  Ground  Logwood, 
1^  lbs.  Nutgalls, 

II  lbs.  Madder, 
2|^  lbs.  Barwood, 

I  lb.    Camwood, 
I  lb.    Cudbear, 
3    lbs.  Alum. 
Boil  the  drugs  one  half  hour.     Boil  the  wool  two  hours. 
If  you  should  want  this  any  darker,  sadden  with  a  little  cop- 
peras. 


580  THE   AMEKICAX   DYER. 

Light  and  Bright  Shades  of  Drabs  —  Hoffmann  Drab. 
500  lbs.  Third  Fleece. 

Prepare  with — 

20    lbs.  Alum, 

3  lbs.  Chrome, 

4  lbs.  Oil  of  Vitriol, 
1^  lbs.  Tin  Crystals, 

1  pail  of  Bran, 
Boil  the  wool  one  hour. 

Finish  with — 

2^  lbs.  Ground  Logwood. 

1 1  oz.  Hoffmann's  3  B's  Violet. 
Boil  the  wool  one  and  one-fourth  hours. 

Light  Slate-Drab. 
400  lbs.  Second  Fleece. 

7    lbs.  Ground  Logwood, 

3  lbs.  Ground  Fustic, 
21  lbs.  Cudbear. 

Boil  these  for  twenty  minutes,  then  add — 

4  lbs.  Ked  Tartar, 

2  lbs.  Alum, 

1  lb.  Copperas. 
Rake  up  well ;  cool  down  and  enter  the  wool ;  give  it  a 
good  poling,  and  boil  one  and  one-fourth  hours. 

Silver  Drab. 
250  lbs.  Third  Fleece. 

1    lb.    Madder, 

21  lbs.  Ground  Logwood, 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  581 

^  lb.  Cudbear, 
I  lb.  Nutgiills, 
^  lb.  Ground  Fustic. 

Boil  out  for  twenty  minutes  ;  then  add — 

1^  lb.  Red  Tartar, 

^  lb.  Copperas. 
Proceed  as  for  light  slate-drab,  and  boil  one  hour. 

Dove  Drab. 
200  lbs.  Second  Fleece. 

Prepare  with — 

2  lbs.  Alum, 

1  lb.    Chrome, 

^  lb.    White  Tartar. 
Boil  one  hour. 

Finish  with — 

^  lb.  Ground  Logwood, 
11  ounces  Brazil-wood. 
Boil  these  one-half  hour.     Boil  wool  one-half  hour. 

Darker  Dove-Drab. 
263  lbs.  Third  Fleece. 

Prepare  with — 

14  ounces  Chrome, 

14  ounces  White  Tartar, 

2  lbs.  Alum. 

Boil  wool  one  and  a  half  hours. 

Finish  with — 

1^  lbs.  Ground  Logwood, 

IV  lbs.  Brazil-wood, 

1^  lb.    Cudbear. 
Boil  these  one-half  hour.     Boil  wool  one   and  one-quarter 
hours. 


582  THE    A3IERICAN   DTEE. 

Blue-Drab. 

208  lbs.  Third  Fleece. 

Prepare  with — 

13    ounces  Chrome, 
2    lbs.  White  Tartar, 
3V  lbs  Alum. 

Finish  with — 

26  ounces  Ground  Logwood, 
1  lb.  Cudbear,    - 
8  ounces  Brazil-wood. 
Proceed  as  for  the  dark  dove-drab. 


Dove. 
270  lbs.  Second  Fleece. 

Prepare  with — 

18  ounces  Chrome, 

18  ounces  Alum, 

18  ounces  Tartar. 
Boil  wool  one  hour. 

Finish  with — 

21  ounces  Ground  Logwood, 
21  ounces  Nutgalls, 
13  ounces  Camwood, 
If  lbs.  Madder, 
f  lb.  Ground  Fustic. 
Boil  wool  one  and  one-half  hours. 

Sadden  with — 

13  ounces  Copperas. 
Boil  one-half  hour. 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  583 


Stone-Drab. 
450  lbs.  Fourth  Cape  Wool. 

3|  lbs.  Ground  Logwood, 
If  Ibs.^  Nutgalls, 
2    lbs.  Madder, 
2    lbs.  Fustic, 
^  lb.    Camwood. 
Boil  wool  one  and  one-half  hours. 

Sadden  with — 

1^  lbs.  Alura, 

1|  lbs.  Tartar, 

2    lbs.  Copperas. 
Boil  one-half  hour  lonsfer. 


Stone-Drab. 
295  lbs.  Second  Fleece. 

1|  lbs.  Nutgalls, 
3|  lbs.  Ground  Logwood, 
4i  lbs.  Ground  Fustic, 
15  ounces  Camwood. 
Boil  wool  one  and  one-half  hours. 

Sadden  with — 

1|  lbs.  Copperas, 

1    lb.  Alum, 

1    11).  Tartar. 
Boil  one-half  hour  longer. 


584  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

Stone-Drab. 
250  lbs.  Third  American  Fleece. 

3    lbs.  Ground  Logwood, 

If  lbs.  Nntgalls, 

2    lbs.  Madder, 

2    lbs.  Ground  Fustic. 
Boil  wool  one  and  one-half  hours. 
Sadden  with — 

1  lb.    Alum, 
lib.    Tartar, 

2  lbs.  Copperas. 
Boil  one-half  hour  longer. 

Note. — In  all  cases  where  all  the  materials  are  in  a  ground  state,  all  the 
boiling-  that  is  required  for  them  before  entering  the  wool,  is  from  twenty 
to  thirty  minutes,  esi^ecially  for  the  light  shades,  unless  otherwise  stated  in 
the  recipes. 

Slate-Drab. 
170  lbs.  clean  Cape  Wool. 

Prepare  with — 

2^  lbs.  Chrome, 

l"'  lb.    Tartar, 

1    lb.    Alum. 
Finish  with — 

5  lbs.  Logwood, 
12  lbs.  Madder, 

1  lb.   Cudbear, 

1  lb.   Camwood. 
Sadden  with — 

1  lb.  Copperas, 

1  lb.  Tartar. 
Boil  wool  in  the  preparation,  and  finish  in  one  and  one-half 
hours  each  ;  after  saddening,  boil  one-half  hour. 


THE    AMERICAl^   DYER.  585 


Fawn-Drab. 

300  lbs.  Montevideo  Wool. 

2|  lbs.  Ground  Logwood, 
3    lbs.  Camwood, 
9    lbs.  Madder. 

Sadden  with — 

3  *lbs.  Copperas, 
11  lbs.  Alum. 

Boil  wool  one  hour  before  saddening  and  one  hour  after 
saddening. 

Light-Slate  Drab. 
200  lbs.  Clean  Montevideo  Wool  (or  500  lbs.  in  the  grease). 

Prepare  with — 

2  lbs.  Chrome, 

1  lb.    Alum. 

Boil  wool  one  and  one-half  hours. 

Finish  with — 

4  lbs.  Ground  Longwood, 

2  lbs.  Camwood, 
1  lb.    Cudbear. 

Boil  one  and  three-quarters  hours. 


Claret. 
Second  Amerfoan  Fleece,  500  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

5  lbs.  Chrome, 

5  lbs.  Tartar. 

Boil  wool  one  and  a  half  hours. 
74 


586  THE   AMERICAl^   DTEE. 

Finish  with — 

140  lbs.  Camwood, 
35  lbs.  Hypernic, 
12  lbs.  Logwood, 
20  lbs.  Fustic. 
Boil  wool  two  hours.     Then  sadden  with  eight  lbs.  cop- 
peras, aud  boil  half  an  hour  longer. 

Dark  Claret. 

* 
Second  Fleece,  450  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

6  lbs.  Chrome, 

7  lbs.  Tartar. 

Boil  one  and  three-fourths  hours. 

Finish  with — 

125  lbs.  Camwood, 
6  lbs.  Logwood, 
72  lbs.  Hypernic. 
Boil  wool  two  hours. 

Purple-Claret. 
Third  Fleece,  300  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

3  lbs.  Chrome, 

3  lbs.  Alum, 

2  lbs.  Red  Tartar. 

Finish  with — 

90  lbs.  Camwood, 

6  lbs.  Logwood,  * 

20  lbs.  Hypernic, 
16  lbs.  Cudbear. 
Sadden  with  six  lbs.  copperas. 

Boil  one  and  a  half  hours  in  preparation,  and  two  hours  in 
the  finish,  one  hour  after  saddening. 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  587 

Blues  —  Indigo  Shade  (Fast). 
Third  Australian  Wool,  300  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

12  lbs.  Alum, 

2  lbs.  Tartarine, 

2  lbs.  Tin  Crystals. 
Boil  the  wool  three-fourths  of  an  hour.     Then  draw  off. 

Finish  with — 

8  lbs.  Chip  Logwood. 

Boil  out  the  logwood.     Then  add  to  the  liquor — 
18    lbs.  Extract  of  Indigo, 
1^  lbs.  Hoffmann's  3.B's  Violet. 
Boil  these  for  fifteen  minutes.     Then  cool  down,  and  enter 
the  wool.     Pole  up  well,  and  boil  one  hour. 

Sadden  with   six   lbs.    copperas,   and  boil    one    hulf-hour 
longer. 

Note. — When  the  -wool  is  first  entered  in  the  dye,  you  will  see  that  the  log- 
wood is  precipitated  ;  but  it  will  all  come  into  solution  again  after  boiling  a 
short  time.  The  cause  of  its  precipitating  is  the  action  of  the  sulphuric  acid 
contained  in  the  chemic,  or  extract  of  indigo. 

For  other  recipes  for  blue,  see  the  recipes  with  samples. 


FRENCH  RECIPES. 
Swallow  Blue. 


Cloth,  100  lbs. 


Prepare  with — 

2    lbs.  Chrome, 

2    lbs.  Oxalic  Acid, 

1    lb.  Blue  Vitriol, 


588  THE    A^IERICAX   DYER. 

5    lbs.  Alum, 
U  lbs.  Oil  of  Vitriol. 
Boil  cloth  two  hours. 

Finish  with — 

14  lbs.  Chip  Logwood. 
Boil  cloth  one  hour. 

Red-Blue . 
Cloth,  50  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

1    lb.    Chrome, 

I  lb.    Oxalic  Acid, 
3    lbs.  Alum, 

II  lbs.  Tiu  Crystals, 

^  lb.    Cream  of  Tartar. 
Boil  cloth  two  hours. 

Finish  with — 

15  lbs.  Logwood, 
7^  lbs.  Camwood, 
2|  lbs.  Madder, 

i  lb.    Tartar. 
Boil  cloth  one  and  one-fourth  hours. 


Green-Brown. 
Clean  Wool,  90  lbs. 

Give  a  light-blue  bottom  in  the  blue-vat. 

Finish  with — 

50  lbs.  Fustic, 

10  lbs.  Alum, 
1  lb.    Tartar. 
Boil  one  and  one-half  hours.     Then 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  589 

Sadden  with  six  lbs.  ground  logwood,  and  boil  one  half- 
hour. 

N.  B, — The  wool  should  be  washed  after  it  comes  out  of 
the  blue- vat. 

Yellow-Brown. 
Clean  Wool,  24  Iba. 

4  lbs.  Fustic, 

2  lbs.  Sanders, 

1  lb.  Sumac. 
Boil  one   and  three-fourths   hours.     Boil  wool  the   same. 
Then  sadden  with  four  ounces  copperas,  and  boil  one  half- 
hour  longer. 

Fast  Beown. 
Clean  Wool,  24  lbs. 

6  lbs.  Sanders, 
2|  lbs.  Sumac, 

1  lb.    Logwood, 

2  lbs.  Fustic. 

Boil  dyestuflfs  and  wool  one  and  a  half  hours.  Sadden 
with — 

1  lb.    Copperas, 
\  lb.    Blue  Vitriol. 
Boil  half  an  hour. 

Gold-Brown. 
Clean  Wool,  24  lbs. 

6  lbs.  Fustic, 
.    1  lb.    Madder, 
1  lb.    Sanders, 
1  lb.    Sumac. 


590  THE   AMERICATjT   DYEK. 

Boil  one  hour ;  then  add — 

fib.    Blue  Vitriol, 

^  lb.    Tartar. 
Enter  the  wool,  and  boil  one  and  a  half  hours. 

Madder  Brown. 

Clean  Wool,  24  lbs. 

Color  to  a  light  blue  in  the  blue-vat ;  then  prepare  with — 
2|  lbs.  Alum, 
f  lb.    Red  Tartar, 
^Ib.    Blue  Vitriol, 
2    lbs.  Fustic. 
Boil  wool  one  and  a  half  hours ;  then 

Finish  with — 

8    lbs.  Madder, 

1^  lbs.  Sumac. 
Boil  wool  half  an  hour. 

Chrome  Brown. 
Clean  Wool,  24  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

I  lb.    Chrome, 
1  lb.    Blue  Vitriol, 
f  lb.    Mordant.* 

Finish  with — 

5    lbs.  Camwood, 
1|  lbs.  Logwood, 
1    lb.    Fustic. 
Boil  wool  in  the  preparation  one  and  a  half  hours,  and  in 
the  finishing  the  same  time. 

*  To  make  the  mordant",  mix  one  pound  muriatic  acid,  one  pound  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  one  pound  water.  Dissolve  in  this,  twelve  pounds  feather- 
tiu. 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  591 


Catechu  Brown. 
Clean  Wool,  24  lbs. 

4  lbs.  Catechu, 

1  lb.    Sal-ammoniac. 

Boil  wool  one  and  a  half  hours  ;  then 

Finish  with — 

^  lb.    Chrome. 
Boil  one  hour. 

Domingo  Brown. 
Clean  Wool,  24  lbs. 

1^  lbs.  Logwood, 
2    lbs.  Sumac, 
2    lbs.  Sanders, 

1  lb.    Fustic. 

Boil  wool  one  and  a  half  hours.     Also  boil  the  woods  the 
same  time.     Sadden  with — 

2  lbs.  Copperas. 
Boil  half  an  hour. 

Maroon. 
Clean  Wool,  24  lbs. 

6'   lbs.  Camwood, 
4    lbs.  Urine  (sig), 
2^  lbs.  Sumac, 

2  lbs.  Logwood. 
Boil  the  wool  two  hours. 

Sadden  with — 

2  lbs.  Copperas. 
Boil  half  an  hour. 


592  THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 

Bronze. 
Cleau  Wool,  24  lbs. 

6  lbs.  Fustic, 
2^  lbs.  Camwood, 
2  lbs.  Sumac. 
Boil  wool  one  and  a  half  hours ;  then 

Sadden  with — 

I  lb.    Copperas, 

^  lb.    Blue  Vitriol. 
Boil  half  an  hour. 

Drab. 
Clean  Wool,  100  lbs. 

2|  lbs.  Sanders, 
2f  lbs.  Madder, 

^  lb.    Sumac, 

fib.    Fustic. 

Boil  these  one  and  a  half  hours ;  then  add — 
6  oz.    Alum, 
11  lbs.  Tartar. 
Enter  the  wool,  and  pole  up  well.     Boil  for  one  and  three- 
fourths  hours. 

Green. 
Clean  Wool,  100  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

9  lbs.  Alum, 
2^  Ills.  Chrome, 
21  lbs.  Oil  of  Vitriol, 
6  oz.    Tin  Crystals. 
Boil  wool  one  and  a  half  hours. 


THE    AMERICAIf   DYER.  593 


Finish  with — 

21  lbs.  Extract  of  Indigo, 

^  lb.    Extract  of  Fustic, 

^Ib.    Salt. 
Boil  the  wool  two  hours. 


Gold-Olive. 
Clean  Wool,  100  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

3  lbs.  Chrome, 
1^  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol, 

fib.    Oil  of  Vitriol. 
Boil  wool  one  and  three-fourths  hours. 

Finish  with — 

5^  lbs.  Extract  of  Fustic, 
.  3  lbs.  Camwood, 
I  lb.    Extract  of  Logwood, 
3  lbs.  Madder. 
Boil  wool  two  hours  ;  then 

Sadden  with — 

f  lb.    Copperas. 
Boil  half  an  hour. 


Chrome  Black. 
Clean  Wool,  100  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

8  lbs.  Alum, 
3  1I)S.  Chrome, 
1^  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol, 
1^  lbs.  Oil  of  Vitriol. 
Boil  wool  one  and  a  half  hours. 

75 


594  THE    A3IERICAX    DYER. 

Finish  with — 

8  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood, 
I  lb.    Alum, 
I  lb.    Blue  Vitriol. 
Boil  two  hours. 

This  black  is  more  of  a  blue-black  than  black.  We  have 
worked  a  greater  part  of  these  Freuch  recipes,  aud  find  them 
very  good  indeed. 


GERMAN  RECIPES. 
Black. 
100  lbs.  Clean  Wool. 

Prepare  with — 

3  lbs.      Chrome, 

3  lbs.      Blue  Vitriol, 
1^  lbs.    Oil  of  Vitriol. 

Boil  wool  one  aud  a  half  hours.*  Leave  until  next  day 
bef(H'e  finishing. 

Finish  with — 

65  lbs.  Chip  Logwood. 

Boil  drugs  one  and  a  half  hours  ;  boil  wool  the  same  ;  then 
sadden  with — 

4  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol, 
and  boil  half  an  hour. 

Fast  Blue-Black. 
25  lbs.  Clean  Wool. 

Prepare  with — • 

^  lb.    Chrome, 

^  11).    Bisulphate  Soda, 

*  The  (lyestuffs  (that  is,  the  woods)  in  all  cases  to  be  boiled  one  and  a  half 
hours;  also  the  ■wool,  unless  otherwise  specified.  By  the  phrase,  leave  over 
night,  it  is  understood  that  you  do  not  finish  oS  until  the  next  day. 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  595 

4  oz.   Blue  Vitriol, 

2  oz.   Oil  of  Vitriol. 

Finish  with — 

1  lb.    Ciitch, 

5  lbs.   Chip  Logwood. 

Castor  Black. 
12  lbs.  Clean  Wool. 

Prepare  with — 

^  lb.    Blue  Vitriol, 
I  lb.    Tartar, 
1^  lbs.  Copperas, 
fib.    Fustic  (Chips). 
Boil  out  the  fustic  before  adding  the  salts.     Boil  wool  two 
hours  ;  leave  over  night. 

Finish  with — 

2|  lbs.        Chip  Logwood, 
1    drachm  Verdigris. 


Zinc  Black. 
10  lbs.  Clean  Wool. 

Prepare  with — 

I  oz.  Blue  Vitriol, 
I  lb.  Zinc  Solution,* 
\  lb.  Chrome. 

Finish  with — 

2    lbs.  Chip  Logwood, 
^  lb.    Turmeric. 

»  To  make  the  zinc  solution,  kill  one  pound  muriatic  acid  with  three  ounces 
of  ziuc,  or  iu  that  proportion. 


596  THE    A3IERICAN   DYER. 

Coal  Black. 
100  lbs.  Cloth. 

Prepare  with — 

15  lbs.  Logwood, 
15 'lbs.  Fustic. 

Boil  these  for  oue  and  a  half  hours ;  then  add 
10  lbs.  Copperas, 

3  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol, 

2  lbs.  Tartar. , 

Boil  cloth  two  hours ;  next  day 

Finish  with — 

50  lbs.  Chip  Logwood. 
Boil  wood  one  and  a  half  hours  ;  cloth  two  hours. 
This  is  the  best  black  that  can  be  made  upon  cloth,  and  the 
most  permanent,  except  indigo  black. 

Blue-Black. 
100  lbs.  Cloth. 

Prepare  with — 

1|  lbs.  Copperas, 

4  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol, 

1  lb.    Alum, 
21  lbs.  Tartar. 

Finish  with — 

40  lbs.  Chip  Logwood. 
Proceed  as  for  the  coal  black. 

Blue-Black. 
100  lbs.  Clean  Wool. 

Prepare  with — 

3  lbs.  Chrome, 

2  lbs.  Salt, 


THE   AMERICAN    DYER.  597 


2  lbs.  Tin  Crystals, 

1  lb.    Alum, 

1  lb.    Oil  of  Vitriol. 


Finish  with — 


Finish  with — 

40  lbs.  Chip  Logwood, 
1  lb.    Chip  Fustic. 
Boil  wool  one  hour. 


Black. 
40  lbs.  Cloth. 

Prepare  with — 

2  lbs.  Sumac, 
2  lbs.  Fustic, 
I  lb.    Madder. 

Boil  these  half  an  hour ;  then  add 

1  lb.      Blue  Vitriol, 

1^  lbs.  Copperas. 
Boil  the  cloth  two  hours ;  leave  over  night. 

Finish  with — 

14  lbs.  Chip  Logwood. 

Boil  cloth  one  hour. 

Although  this  recipe  originated  in  Germany,  my  father  and 
nearly  all  the  dyers  in  Yorkshire  used  it  thirty-five  years  ago, 
and  at  that  time  there  was  no  other  black  that  brought  so  high 
a  price. 

We  have  ourselves  colored  by  this,  and  can  recommend  it 
as  producing  a  first-rate  color.  The  German  recipes  produce 
good  clear,  bright,  and  permanent  colors  ;  but  most  of  our 
manufacturers  object  to  them  on  account  of  the  expense, 
which  is  a  very  foolish  objection,  in  our  opinion. 

Madder  Red. 
11  lbs.  Cloth. 


598  THE   A3IERICAN   DYER. 

Prepare  with — 

2  lbs.  Alum, 
1  lb.  Tartar, 

^  oz.  Tin  Crystals. 
Boil  cloth  two  hours ;  leave  over  night. 

Finish  with — 

1  lb.  Garancine  or  Alizorine, 

1  lb.  Cream  of  Tartar. 
Boil  cloth  one  and  a  half  hours. 

Coffee  Color. 
100  lbs.  Clean  Wool. 

Prepare  with — 

60  lbs.  Red  Sanders, 
50  lbs.  Fustic, 
40  lbs.  Logwood. 
Boil  these  two  hours  ;  boil  the  wool  two  hours ;  then  sad- 
den with  eleven  lbs.  copperas  and  boil  one-half  hour  longer. 

Red-Brown. 
200  lbs.  Clean  Wool. 

Prepare  with — 

25  lbs.  Alum, 
5  lbs.  Tartar, 

3  lbs.  Chrome. 

Boil  wool  one  and  a  half  hours. 

Finish  with — 

200  lbs  Camwood, 
50  lbs.  Fustic, 
8  lbs.  Logwood. 
Boil  wool  two  hours  ;.then  sadden  with  six  lbs.  blue  vitriol 
and  boil  one-half  hour  longer. 


THE   AMERICAN"   DYER.  599 

Catechu  Brown. 
100  Clean  Wool. 

20  lbs.  Ciitch, 

2  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Boil  two  hours. 

Fiuish  with — 

4  lbs.  Chrome. 
Boil  one  hour. 

Cherry- Brown. 
200  lbs.  Clean  AVool. 

Prepare  with — 

25  lbs.  Alum, 

3  lbs.  Chrome, 
6  lbs.  Tartar. 

Finish  with — 

200  lbs.  Camwood, 
20  lbs.  Fustic,  ^ 

6  lbs.  Logwood. 
Boil  two  hours ;  then  sadden  with  six  lbs.  blue  vitriol  and 
boil  one-half  hour. 

Brown. 
200  lbs.  Clean  Wool. 

Prepare  with — 

5  lbs.  Chrome, 

2^  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol, 

4  lbs.  Tartar. 
Boil  wool  two  hours. 

Finish  with — 

120  lbs.  Fustic, 
100  lbs.  Camwood, 
2  lbs.  Logwood. 


600  THE    AMERICAIf   DYER. 

Boil  woods  two  hours  ;  l)()il  wool  two  hours  ;  then  sadden 
with  two  and  a  half  lbs.  copperas  ;  boil  oue-half  hour  and 
leave  it  in  the  liquor  for  two  or  three  hours.  This  is  a  good 
heavy  color  and  a  splendid  shade. 

Brown. 
200  lbs.  Clean  Wool. 

150  lbs.  Camwood, 

4  lbs.  Fustic,  , 

3  lbs.  Tartar. 
Boil  out   the   woods   for  two  hours,  then   add  the  tartar. 
Boil  the  wool  two  hours  ;  then   sadden  with  three   lbs.  cop- 
peras and  boil  one-half  hour  longer. 

Sanders  Brown. 
100  lbs.  Clean  Wool. 

35  lbs.  Red  Sanders, 
A  lbs.  Fustic. 
Boil  woods  one  hour ;  boil   wool  the  same  ;  then  sadden 
with  one  lb.  blue  vitriol  and  boil  three-fourths  of  an  hour. 


Brown. 
200  lbs.  Clean  Wool. 

Prepare  with — 

5  lbs.  Chrome, 

2^  lbs.  Oil  of  Vitriol. 

Finish  with — 

90  lbs.  Fustic, 

6  lbs.  Turmeric, 
100  lbs.  Camwood, 

2  lbs.  Lojrwood. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  GOl 

Boil  wool  two  hours  ;  then  sadden  with  two  and  a  half  lbs. 
copperas  and  boil  one-half  hour  longer. 

Maroon. 
100  lbs.  Clean  Wool. 

Prepare  with — 

2  lbs.  Chrome. 
Boil  wool  two  hours. 

Finish  with — 

10  lbs.  Cudbear, 

15  lbs.  Hypernic-wood, 

30  lbs.  Camwood. 
Boil  one  and  three-fourths  hours. 

Maroon. 
100  lbs.  Clean  Wool. 

Prepare  with — 

15  lbs.  Alum, 
5  lbs.  Sulphate  of  Soda  (Glauber  Salts). 
Finish  with — 

10  lbs.  Hypernic, 
40  lbs.  Bar  wood, 
4  lbs.  Extract  of  Fustic. 
Boil  wool  one  and  three-fourths  hours. 

Maroon. 
100  lbs.  Clean  Wool. 

2  lbs.  Cudbear, 
50  lbs.  Camwood, 
2  lbs.  Logwood. 
Boil  wool  two  hours  ;  then  sadden  with  two  and  a  half  lbs. 
copperas  ;  boil  one-half  hour  longer. 

76 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 


G():3 


SAMPLKS   OF   COTTOX-YAR.V. 

No.    1.  —  Cori'KHAS  liitow.v. 


No.   -J.  —  VkLU)W-1!U:)VVX. 


No.  4. 


No.    f).' — Ck.NTKXMAL    I)I!.\1J. 


604 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 


SAMPLES   OF   COTTON-YARN. 

No.  7.  —  Silvkk-Drau. 


No.  8.  —  Spirit  Brown. 


No. 

'J. 

—  Dark 

Salmon. 

No.  10.  —  Nankeen. 


^^^^^SS 


No.  11.  —  Turmeric  Yellow. 


No.  12.  —  Dark  Saffranixe. 


0^. 


-,.^*s 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 


005 


SAMPLES   OF   COTTOX-YARN. 

No.    1;>. —  F()I{(iET-ME-N()T   Ol!.\N(iK. 


No.    14. —  MAta.XTA. 


No.  15.  —  Spirit  PuurLK. 


No.    IG.  —  IIOFFMAXX'S    ViOLKT. 


No.  18.  —  T.iciiT  Mr/niYL  Vioi.kt. 


(m 


THE    A3IEKICAJ\"    DYEIl. 


SAMPLKS   OF   COTTOX-YAKN. 

No.  19.  —  Light  Salmon. 


X(».  v-O.  —  Gold  Color. 


No.  -Jl.  —  Ckxtknnial  Salmon'. 


A'o.  i^'i.  —  Sai'i'I!AXI\e  Pink. 


No.  -23. —  Dark  Tixk. 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 


GOT 


SAMPLKS   OF   COTTOX-YAliN. 

No.  '25.  —  Dark  Saok-Duah. 


No.  2(1.  —  Dai!K  Slatk. 


No    -n.  —  Piu'ssiAX  \^\A^K 


No.  'JH.  —  I.KiiiT  I'lassiAN  Hi. IK 


No.  :!0.  —  LioiiT  Anii.in-k  \\\.vv. 


008 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 


SAMPLES   OF   COTTON-YARN. 

No.  31.  —  Lavkndkr. 


No.    :M.  —  I.KIIIT   P.ISMAUCK    PiKOWX. 


No.  :?r).  —  Da  UK  IiRowx. 


No.  :W.  —  ])ai;k  Pki'ssiatk,  Ckkkn. 


.r'SK* 


THE   AIMERICAN   DYER. 


GOO 


SAMPLES   OF   COTTON-YARN. 

No.  :?7.  —  Pur.ssiAX  GiticKX. 


No.  38.  —  Anilixe  Grekx. 


No.  39.  —  LiiJiiT  AxiLiXE  Gkeex. 


No.  40.  —  IJr.i>. 


610 


THE    AMEKICAX   DYEtJ. 


SAMPLES   OF   WOOLEX-YARN. 


No.  1. 

—  Light  Bi.uk  Staix. 

(P:i«ie  6-2i;.) 

^ 

tV 

No.  2.- 

-D.\i;k  Bue  Staix. 

(Pagr 

(V27.) 

m 

^^ 

MHI 

■MflP 

^^H 

■1 

HBB^ 

No.  i? 

—  PIeavy  Royal  Bluk. 

(Pago  0-27.) 

m 

SS8S9BSB9ESd! 

No.  4.  —  Canary.    (Page6'27.) 


No.  5. 

—  Methyle  Greex. 

(Page  628.) 

^^^^^  ^^^^^^^P 

■M^^MM 

^^^B» 

■KBbri 

^ffgtt/tf 

No.  6.  —  Cakdixal-Ked.     (Page  Gi'^.) 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  611 


REMARKS     IN     REFERENCE     TO     THE     RECIPES, 

WITH    SAMPLES,    ON    COTTON-YARN.      (See  pp. 

38,.  149.) 

These  colors  were  produced  from  recipes  of  Mr.  Joseph 
Haywood,  who  is  as  proficient  in  cotton-yarn  dyeing  as  any 
dyer  in  the  States. 

All  those  colors  that  arc  first sumacked  und  \hen  spirited  are 
fast  colors. 

Those  materials  that  cannot  be  entirely  dissolved  in  water 
must  be  boiled  out  tirst  in  a  separate  vessel  and  allowed  to 
settle,  then  take  the  clear  solution  and  add  it  t-o  the  dye-tub. 
The  solutions  should  always  be  raked  up  or  stirred  up  before 
the  yarn  is  entered.  Be  sure  that  the  anilines  and  other  crys- 
talline materials  are  all  thoroughly  dissolved  before  adding 
them  to  the  dye-tub. 

The  anilines  used  on  these  yarns  were  from  A.  Poirrier  of 
Paris. 

The  yarn  should  be  washed  in  cold  water,  unless  otherwise 
stated,  and  before  it  is  colored  it  must  be  boiled  out  in  soda- 
ash  for  three  or  four  hours,  then  taken  and  thoroughly  washed 
from  the  ash  before  it  is  colored. 

Where  the  recipes  sa^^  wring,  they  mean  wring  the  yarn  on  a 
pin,  or  to  use  the  extractor  will  do  as  well.  The  yarn  should 
be  boiled  in  clear  water  for  a  few  hours  before  it  is  colored. 


RECIPES  FOR  COLORS  ON  COTTON- YARN. 
CorrERAS  Brown. 
No.   1.     Yarn,  40  lbs. 

3  lbs  Cutch, 
2  oz.  Copperas. 
Steep  the  yarn  in  this  all  night ;  next  morning  wring  it 
out.     This  is  a  cold  bath. 


G12  THE   A3IERICAX    DYER. 

Second  bath.     Heat  to  be  110°  Fahr. 
1  lb.  Chrome, 
f  lb.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Enter  the  yarn  and  give  seven  turns,   then  take  out  and 
■wash  it  off. 

Finish  it  in  cold  lime-water,  giving  it  five  turns.     Soften 
it  in  the  oil-wash.     (See  Oil-wash,  page  115.) 

Yellow-Drab. 
No.  2.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Heat,  100°  Fahr. 

4  lbs.  Fustic, 
1  lb.    Sumac, 
^  lb.    Logwood. 
Give  five  turns  in  this,  raise  out  the  yarn,  and   add   to  the 
tub  one-half  lb.  copperas.     Re-enter  the  yarn  and  give  five 
turns  ;  take  out  and  wash  off. 

No.  3.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Heat,  110°  Fahr. 

4  lbs.  Fustic, 
4  lbs.  Hyperuic, 
1  lb.    Logwood. 
Give  seven  turns  in  this ;  take  out ;  add  to  tub  one-fourth 
lb.  copperas.     Re-enter  yarn  ;  give   five  turns  ;  take  out  and 
wash  off. 

Tan. 
No.  4.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Heat,  200°  Fahr. 

3  lbs.  Cutch, 
fi  oz.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Turn  yarn  for  one-half  hour ;  take  it  out  and  wring. 
Finish  in  a  fresh  bath  at  200°  Fahr.,  in   which  use  three- 
fourths  lb.  Chrome  ;  give   five  turns  in  this  ;  take  out  and 
wash  off. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  G]3 


Centennial  Drab, 

No.  5.     Yam,  33  lbs. 

Heat,  110°  Fahr. 

10  oz.  Fustic, 
2  oz.  Hypernic. 
Give  five  turns  ;  take  out  and  add  to  the   tub  one  oz.  of 
copperas.     Re-enter   yarn  ;   give  three  turns ;  take  out  and 
wash  off. 

Sage-Drab. 
No.   6.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Heat,  120°  Fahr. 

5  lbs.  Fustic, 
1  lb.    Sumac. 
Give  four  turns  ;  take  out ;  add  to  tub  one-half  lb.  cop- 
peras.    Re-enter  yarn  and  give  four  turns.     Take   out  and 
wash  off. 

Silter-Drab. 
No.  7.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Cold  bath. 

5  oz.  Logwood. 
■     Give  yarn  five  turns  ;  take  up  ;  add   to  tub  two  oz.  cop- 
peras ;  re-enter  yarn  ;  give  three  turns ;   take  out  and  wash 
off. 

Spirit-Brown. 

No.  8.  ■  Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Heat,  200°  Fahr. 

5  lbs.  Sumac. 
Turn  3'arn  in  this  for  one-half  hour ;  take  out  and  wring. 
Second  bath.     Cold. 

1  pint  Nitro-Muriate  of  Tin. 
Give  seven  turns ;  take  out  and  wash  off,  and  wring  out. 


61:1:  THE   A3IERICAN   DYEK. 

Third  bath.     Heat,  190°  Fahr. 
5  lbs.  Cutch, 

5  oz.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Give  seven  turns  ;  take  out. 
Fourth  bath.     Heat,  190<=>  Fahr. 

H  lbs.  Chrome. 
Give  yarn  five  turns  in  this  ;  take  out  and  wash  off. 
In  order  to  get  a  darker  shade,  you  can  run  it  through  the 
second  and  third  baths  again. 

Dark  Salmon. 
No.  9.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Heat,  200^  Fahr. 

2  lbs.  Annatto, 

1  lb.  Soda-ash. 
Give  yarn  five  turns  ;  take  out. 
Second  bath.     Cold. 

1  gill  Oil  of  Vitriol. 
Give  yarn- five  turns  in  this ;  take  out  and  wash  off  well. 

Nankeen. 
No.   10.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

4  lbs.  Copperas. 

Give  yarn  seven  turns  in  this.  Wring  out  the  j^arn  and 
shake  it  well ;  then  give  it  seven  turns  in  cold  lime-water. 

Soften  in  cold  water  to  which  has  been  added  a  few  pounds 
of  sal-soda.     All  these  are  cold  baths. 

Turmeric  Yellow. 
No.  11.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Heat,  200°  Fahr. 

6  lbs.  Turmeric. 

Give  yarn  five  turns.     Take  out. 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  G15 

Secoiul  bath.     Cold  ;  one-fourth  gill  oil  of  vitriol.     Enter 
in  this,  and  give  three  turns.     Take  out,  and  wash  oif  icell. 


Dakk  Saffranine. 
No.  12.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Cold. 

5  lbs.  Sumac. 
Turn  yarn  in  this  for  half  an  hour.     Take  out,  and  wring  it. 
Second  bath.     Cold. 

1  pint  Nitro-Muriate  of  Tin. 

Give  yarn  five  turns  in  this.    Take  out,  wash  off,  and  wring 
the  yarn. 

Third  bath.     Heat,  140'^  Fahr. 

2  oz.  Golden  Roseine, 
4  oz.  Saffranine. 

Give  the  yarn  five  turns  in  this.     Take  out,  and  wash  off. 

Forget-Me-Not  Orange. 
No.  13.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

8  lbs.  Brown  Sugar  of  Lead, 

3  lbs.  Litharge. 

Boil  these  until  dissolved.     Let  it  settle.     Then  add  it  to  a 
tub  of  cold  water  (this  is  called  the  lead-tub). 
Second  tub.     Cold,  strong  lime-water. 

Now  give  seven  turns  in  the  lime-tub.     Wring  out. 
'«  "  lead-tub.  " 

«*  "  lime-tub.  " 

•«  ♦*  lead-tub.  " 

Third  tub.     Cold. 

2  lbs.  Chrome. 
Give  yarn  seven  turns  in  the  chrome-tub.     Wring. 
"  "  lead-bath.  " 

"  *«  chrome-tub.  " 


616  THE    AMERICA!^   DYER. 

Fourth  tub.     Heat,  200°  Fahr. 
Strong,  clear  lime-liquor. 

Give  yarn  three  turns  in  this.     Take  out,  and  wash  it  off. 
Soften  the  yarn  in  the  oil-bath.      (See  Oil-wash,  page  115.) 

Strong  lime  liquor  or  water,  is  about  one  degree  of  strength. 

The  yarn  must  be  wrung  out  after  each  immersion,  and 
well  shaken  out,  before  it  goes  from  one  tub  to  the  other. 

Magenta. 
No.  14.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

5  lbs.  Sumac. 
Turn  this  for  half  an  hour.     Wring  out  the  yarn  (cold 
bath). 

Second  bath.     Cold. 

1^  lbs.  Stannate  of  Soda,  or 

r    lb.    Oxy-Muriate  of  Antimony. 
Give  five  turns  in  this.     Wash  off,  and  wring  out. 
Third  bath.     Heat,  120°  Fahr. 

4  oz.  Golden  Roseiue. 

Give  seven  turns ;  take  out,  and  wash  off  quick. 

Spirit  Purple. 
No.  15.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Give  yarn  seven  turns  in  cold  bath,  with  one  pint  of  muriate 
of  tin.     Wash  off,  and  wring  out. 
Second  bath.     Heat,  120°  Fahr. 

12  lbs.  Logwood. 
Give  seven  turns.     Take  out.     Add  to  the  tub  one  lb.  of 
alum.     Re-enter  the  yarn,  and  give  five  turns.     Take  out  and 
wash  off. 

Hoffmann's  Violet. 

No.  16.     Yarn,  33'lbs. 

5  lbs.  Sumac. 

Turn  yarn   for  half  an   hour.     Take  out,  and  wring  the 
varn. 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.     ,  617 

Second  bath — 

3  quarts  Red  Spirits  (see  page  377). 
Give  seven  turns  in  this.     Take  out,  wash  off,  and  wring. 
The  first  and  second  baths  are  cold  ones. 
Third  bath.     Heat,  120°  Fahr. 

3|  oz.  of  Hoffmann's  1  B  Violet. 
Give  yarn  seven  turns  in  this.     Take  out,  and  wash  off. 

Blue-Violet. 
No.  17.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Heat,  200°  Fahr. 

5  lbs.  Sumac. 
Turn  yarn  for  half  an  hour.     Take  out,  and  wring. 
Second  bath.     Cold. 

1  pint  Muriate  of  Tin. 
Give  the  yarn  seven  turns.     Take  out,  wash  off,,  and  wring 
the  yarn. 

Finishing  bath.     Heat,  120°  Fahr. 

3  oz.  Methyle  Violet  Crystals. 
Give  the  yarn  four  turns  in  this.     Take  out,  and  add  to  the 
bath  one  gill  of  acetic  acid.     Re-enter  the  yarn,  and  give  four 
turns  more.     Take  out,  and  wash  it  off. 

Light  Methyle  Violet. 
No.  18.     Yarn,  33  lbs.  ' 

Heat,  130°  Fahr. 

If  oz.  Methyle  Violet  Crystals. 
Give  five  turns.     Take  out,  and  wash  off. 

Light  Salmon. 
No.  19.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Heat,  200°  Fahr. 

1  lb.  Annatto, 
\  lb.  Soda-ash. 

78 


618  THE    AMERICi\:N^   DYER. 

Give  five  turns  in  this.  Then  take  out,  and  raise  the  color 
in  a  fresh  bath  of  weak  lime-water  (cold),  giving  the  yarn  five 
turns.     Then  take  out,  and  wash  otF. 

N.  B. — If  you  wish  for  a  redder  shade,  heat  up  the  lime- 
bath  a  little.     The  hotter  the  lime-water  is,  the  redder  will  be 

the  shade. 

Gold  Color. 
No.  20.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Heat,  200°  Fahr. 

6  lbs.  Sumac. 
Turn  yarn  for  half  an  hour.     Take  it  out,  and  wring  it. 
Second  bath.     Cold. 

1  pint  Muriate  of  Tin. 

Give  seven  turns  in  this.  Take  out,  wash  off,  alid  wring 
out. 

Third  bath.     Heat,  140°  Fahr. 

2  oz.  Phosphine. 

Give  the  yarn  six  turns.     Take  out,  and  wash  off. 

In  finishing  in  the  phosphine,  you  must  enter  the  yarn  in 
douhle-quick  time,  and  give  it  a  turn  as  quick  as  possible,  or 
otherwise  it  will  be  uneven. 

Centennial  Salmon. 
No.  21.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Heat,  200*  Fahr. 

3  lbs.  Turmeric. 

Give  the  yarn  five  turns.  Take  out.  Then  add  half  a  gill 
of  oil  of  vitriol.  Re-enter  the  yarn,  and  give  five  turns  more. 
Take  out,  and  wash  off  well. 

Second  bath.     Heat,  100°  Fahr. 
1  bottle  of  Safiiower. 

Give  five  turns.  Take  out,  and  add  one  gill  of  oil  of 
vitriol  to  the  bath.  Re-enter  the  yarn,  and  give  seven  turns. 
Take  out,  and  wash  off  in  two  waters,  and,  to  the  last  water, 
add  half  a  pound  of  cream  of  tartar. 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  G19 


Saffranine  Pink. 
No.  22.     Yarn,  40  lbs. 

Cold  bath  — 

5  lbs.  Sumac. 
Turn  yarn  for  half  an  hour.     Take  it  out,  and  wring.    • 
Second  bath.     Cold. 

1  pint  Oxymuriate  of  Antimony. 
Give  seven  turns.     Take  out,  and  wash  of[  well,  and  wring. 
Third  bath.     Heat,  110°  Fahr. 

4  oz.  Saffranine. 
Give  five  turns.     Take  out,  and  wash  off. 


Dark  Pixk. 
No.  23.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Heat,.  110°  Fahr. 

1  bottle  of  Safflower. 

Give  five  turns.     Take  out,  and  add  one  gill  of  oil  of  vitriol. 

Re-enter  the  yarn,  and  give  seven  turns.     Wash  offtvell, 
and  wring  out. 

Blue  up  the  color  in  cold  water,  to  which  add  one-quarter 
lb.  cream  of  tartar,  by  giving  five  turns  in  this  bath. 


Light  Pink.  * 

No.  24.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Heat,  110°  Fahr. 

^  bottle  of  Safflower. 
Give  the  yarn  five  turns.     Then  take  out,  and  add  half  a 
gill  of  oil  of  vitriol.     Re-enter  the  yarn,  and  give  seven  turns 
more.     Take  out,  wash  off,  and  wring  out. 
■  Blue  up  the  color  the  same  way  as  No.  23  is  done. 


620  THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 

Dark  Sage-Drab. 
No.  25.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Heat,  120°  Fahr. 

5  lbs.  Fustic, 

1  lb.  Sumac. 

Give  yarn  five  turns.     Take  it  out,  and  add  to  bath 
4  ounces  Copperas, 

1  gill  Nitrate  of  Iron. 

Re-enter  the  yarn,  and  give  seven  turns  more.     Take  out, 
and  wash  off. 

Dark  Slate. 
No.  26. 

Heat,  100°  Fahr. 

4  lbs.  Fustic, 
4  lbs.  Hypernic, 

2  lbs.  Logwood. 

Give  yarn  five  turns.     Take  out  and  add 
^  lb.  Copperas, 

1  gill  Nitrate  of  Iron. 

Re-enter  the  yarn,  and  give  five  turns  more.     Take  out, 
and  wash  off. 

Prussian  Blue. 
No.  27.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

First  bath.     Cold. 

2  quarts  Nitrate  of  Iron, 
1  lb.  Tin  Crystals. 

Give  yarn  five  turns.     Take  out,  and  wring  it  out. 
Second  bath.     Heat,  100°  Fahr. 

2  lbs.  Yellow  Prussiute  of  Potash. 

Give  yarn  five  turns.     Take  out,  and  add  to  the  tub  one 
pint  oil  of  vitriol.    Re-enter,  and  give  five  turns.    Wring  out 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  621 

now,  and  enter  the  yarn  into  first  bath  airain,  and  give  five 
turns.  Wring  it  out,  and  enter  into  second  bath,  and  give 
five  turns  more.     Wash  oft*  icell. 

Third  bath.     Heat,  130°  Fahr. 

4  ounces  2  B's  Violet  Crystals. 

Give  yarn  ten  turns  in  this.     Take  out,  and  wash  oft". 

Light  Prussian  Blue. 

No.  28.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Proceed  in  the  same  manner,  and  with  the  same  materials 
and  amount  as  for  No.  27,  only  do  not  use  the  third  or 
violet  bath. 

Dark  Aniline  Blue. 

No.  29.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Heat,  140°  Fahr. 

4  ounces  No.  3  Cotton,  Blue  Aniline  (Poirrier's), 
2\  lbs.  Alum, 

5  ounces  Tartaric  Acid. 

Give  the  yarn  seven  turns.     Take  out,  and  wash  oft*. 

Light  Aniline  Blue. 
No.  30.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Heat,  140°  Fahr. 

2  ounces  No.  1  Single  Cotton,  Blue  Aniline  (Poir- 
rier's), 

5  ounces  Tartaric  Acid, 

2  lbs.  Alum. 
Give  the  yarn  seven  turns  in  this.    Take  out,  and  wash  oflf. 

Lavender. 
No.  31.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Heat,  1 10°  Fahr. 

4  ounces  Methyle  Yiolet  Crj'stals. 
Give  varu  five  turns.     Take  out,  and  wash  off. 


622  THE   AMEKICAN   DYER. 

Dark  Green-Olive. 

No.  32.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Cold  bath. 

2  quarts  Nitrate  of  Iron. 
Give  five  turns.     Take  out,  and  wring. 

Second  bath.     Cold. 

2  lbs.  Yellow  Prussiate  of  Potash. 

Give  the  yarn  five  turns.  Take  up  the  yarn,  and  add  to 
the  bath  one  pint  oil  of  vitriol.  Re-enter  the  yarn,  and  give 
three  turns  more.  Take  it  out  and  wring  it,  and  then  pass  it 
through  each  bath  again,  without  adding  any  more  materials. 
After  passing  the  yarn  through  the  baths  the  second  time, 
wash  the  yarn  off,  and  wring  it  out  for  the  third  bath. 

Third  bath.     Cold. 

Take  the  clear  liquor  from  fifteen  pounds  fustic,  and  put  it 
into  a  tub  of  cold  water.  Enter  the  yarn,  and  give  seven 
turns.  Take  it  out,  and  add  to  the  bath  one  pound  blue 
vitriol.  Re-enter  the  yarn,  and  give  five  turns.  Take  out, 
and  wash  off. 

Dark  Bismarck. 
No.  33.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Heat,  190°  Fahr. 

6  lbs.  Cutch. 
Give  seven  turns.     Take  out. 

Second  bath.     Heat.  190°  Fahr. 

1  lb.  Chrome. 
Give  seven  turns.     Pass  the  yarn  through  each  bath  again, 
as  in  No.  32. 

Third  bath.     Heat,  120°  Fahr. 

3  ounces  Bismarck-Brown  Aniline.     Give  yarn  five 
turns.    Take  out,  and  wash  off. 


THE    AMERICAX   DYER.  623 


Light  Bismarck-Brown. 
No.  34.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Heat,  200°  Fahr. 

3  lbs.  Turmeric. 
Give  five  turns,  and  wring  out  yarn. 
Second  bath.     Heat,  140°  Fahr. 

2  ounces  Bismarck-Brown  Aniline. 
Give  five  turns  in  this.     Take  out,  and  wash  off. 

Dark  Brown. 
No.  35.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Heat,  190°  Fahr. 

7  lb.  Cutch, 
10  ounces  Blue  Vitriol. 
Give  yarn  seven  turns.     Take  out,  and  wring  out. 
Second  bath.     Heat,  180°  Fahr. 

1^  lbs.  Chrome. 

Give  yarn  seven  turns.    Take  out  and  wring.    Now  repeat, 
through  each  bath  again,  as  for  No.  33,  and  wash  off  yarn. 

Dark  Prussian  Green. 
No.  36.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Heat,  200°  Fahr. 

6  lbs.  Sumac. 
After  giving  seven  turns,  lay  the  yarn  under  the  liquor  for 
a  few  hours,  or  over  night.     Take  out,  and  wring  the  yarn. 
Second  bath.     Cold. 

1  quart  Nitrate  of  Iron. 
Give  yarn  five  turns.     Take  out,  and  wring  out. 
Third  bath.     Cold. 

1^  lbs.  Yellow  Prussiate  Potash. 


624  THE    A5IERICAX   DYER. 

Give  yarn  five  turns.     Take  up,  and  add  to  the  bath  one 
cill  oil  of  vitriol.    Re-enter  the  yarn,  and  give  two  turns  more. 
Take  out,  wash  off,  and  wring  out. 
Third  bath.     Heat,  180°  Fahr. 
1  lb.  Turmeric. 
6  lbs.  Fustic. 
Give  yarn  seven  turns.     Take  out,  and  wash  off. 

Prussian  Green. 
No.  37.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Proceed  for  the  two  first  baths  precisely  as  for  No.  36. 

Third  bath. 

3  lbs.  Turmeric. 

Give  five  turns.  Take  up  th^  yarn,  and  add  to  the  tub 
oue-half  gill  oil  of  vitriol.  Ke-enter  yarn,  and  give  five  turns. 
Take  out,  and  wash  off.     (These  are  all  to  be  cold  baths.) 

Aniline  Green. 
No.  38.     Yarn,  33  lbs. 

Heat,  200°  Fahr. 

5  lbs.  Sumac. 
Turn  the  yarn  for  one-half  hour.     Take  out,  and  wring  out. 
Second  bath.     Cold. 

1  pint  Muriate  of  Tin. 
Give  seven  turns,  and  wring  out. 
Third  bath.     Heat,  135°  Fahr. 

3  ounces  Methyle-Green  Aniline  (marked  JJ). 
Give  yarn  seven  turns.     Take  out,  and  wring  out. 
Fourth  bath.     Heat,  110°  Fahr. 

10  lbs.  Fustic. 

Give  five  turns.     Take  up,  and  then  add  one  pound  alum. 

Re-enter,  and  give  five  turns  more.     Take  out,  and  wash  off. 

If  you  prefer  it,  you  can  use  the  fustic  in  the  same  bath, 

along  with  the  methyle  aniline ;  but  l)y  so  doing,  the  color  is 

not  quite  so  clear. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  625 


Light  Aniline  Green. 
No.  39.     33  lbs.  Yarn. 

Heat,  200°  Fahr. 

4  lbs.  Sumac. 
Turn  the  yarn  for  half  an  hour;  take  out  and  wring. 

Second  bath.     Cold. 

1  pint  Muriate  of  Tin. 

Give  seven  turns ;  take  out,  wash  off,  and  wring  out. 

Third  bath.     Heat,  110°  Fahr-. 

2  oz.  Methyle  Green. 

The  same  as  used  in  No.  38.  Give  seven  turns  ;  take  out, 
and  wring  out. 

Fourth  bath.     Heat,  110°  Fahr. 
7  lbs.  Fustic. 

Give  five  turns  ;  take  up,  and  add  to  the  bath  half  a  pound 
of  alum  ;  re-enter  the  yarn,  and  give  three  turns  ;  take  out, 
and  wash  off. 

Red. 
No.  40.     33  lbs  Yarn. 

Heat,  150°  Fahr. 

3  lbs.     Sumac, 

1  quart  Muriate  of  Tin. 

Use  these  together  in  same  bath.  Give  yarn  ten  turns  ; 
take  out,  and  wash  off  well. 

Second  bath.     Heat,  150°  Fahr. 
10  lbs.  Hypernic, 

2  oz.  Roseine, 
2  lbs.  Alum. 

Give  yarn  seven  turns ;  take  out,  and  wash  off. 

79 


626  THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 

REMARKS  ON  WOOLEN-YARN  DYEING. 

In  the  first  place,  be  particular  to  have  the  yarn  well 
scoured,  and  thoroughly  washed  out.  Next,  after  being  washed 
in  cold  water,  wash  it  off  again  in  a  warm  acidulated  water, 
which  will  kill  any  soap  that  may  be  left  from  the  cold-water 
washing.  Scour  the  yarn  with  soap  and  sal-soda  (no  soda- 
ash). 

In  entering  the  yarn  into  the  different  tubs  do  it  exjjedi- 
tioiisJij,  so  that  it  all  may  take  the  d3'e  very  nearly  at  one 
time.  Have  everything  clean  about  the  tubs,  and  around 
them,  so  that  there  will  be  no  chance  of  spotting  the  yarn. 

Before  entering  the  yarn  into  the  tubs^  rake  or  stir  up  the 
dyeing  solutions. 

The  extract  of  indigo  used  on  these  recipes  was  made  by 
using  six  pounds  of  oil  of  vitriol  to  one  pound  of  ground 
indigo.  See  article,  Sulphate  of  Indigo,  for  the  manner  of 
mixing  them,  &c. 

In  dyeing  to  a  pattern,  begin  with  little  enough  dye-stuff, 
as,  if  it  does  not  come  full  enough,  you  can  add  more  ;  but 
if  you  give  too  much,  you  cannot  remedy  the  bad  result. 


RECIPES  FOR  WOOLEN-YARN. 
Light  Blue  Stain. 
No.  1.     Three-fold  Yarn,  50  lbs. 

1  oz.  Nicholson  6  B's  Fast  Blue, 
3  oz.  Sal-soda. 
Enter  the  yarn  at  120°Fahr.  ;  give  nine  turns;  take  out, 
and  raise  the  heat  to  the  boiling  point.     Re-enter  the  yarn, 
and  give  nine  turns  more  ;  take  out. 
♦Develop  at  120°  Fahr.  heat. 

1  quart  Oil  of  Vitriol. 
Give  yarn  five  turns ;  take  out,  and  wash  off. 

*  Develop  in  a  tub  of  clean  T\ater,  and  have  the  tub  well  cleaned  from  a 
previous  color. 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  627 


Dark  Blue  Stain. 
No.  2.     Three-fold  Yiirn,  55  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

1|  oz.  Nicholson  6  B's  Fust  Blue, 

3    oi.  Sal-soda. 
Proceed  as  for  light  blue  stain. 
Develop  with — 

3  pints  Oil  of  Vitriol,  at  120°  Fahr.  heat. 
Give  five  turns ;  take  out,  and  wash  off. 

Heavy  Shade  of  Royal  Blue. 

No.  3.     Three-fold  Yarn,  60  lbs. 

20  lbs.        Extract  Indigo  (thin), 

4  oz.         best  Golden  Roseine, 

2  quarts  Oil  of  Vitriol. 

Enter  cool ;  give  3'arn  nine  turns  ;  take  it  out,  and  raise  the 
heat  to  200°  Fahr.  Re-enter  the  yarn,  and  give  nine  turns 
more. 

Note.  —  The  extract  of  indigo  used  for  this  cok)r  was  made  with  six  pounds 
of  oil  of  vitriol  to  one  pound  of  ground  indigo.  See  article,  Sulphate  of  In- 
digo, for  instructions  how  to  mix  it. 

Canary  Color. 
No.  4.     Six-Thread  Woolen- Yarn,  5  lbs. 

3  oz.     Flavine, 

3^  oz.     White  Tartar, 

3  gills  Muriate  of  Tin. 
Cool  down  the  bath  ;  enter  the  yarn  and  turn  for  one-half 
hour;  then  take  out  the  yarn  and  bring  the  heat  up  to  the 
boiling-point;  add  one  more  gill  of  muriate  of  tin;  re-enter 
the  yarn  and  turn  to  shade ;  then  wash  it  off  and  dry.  This 
is  a  beautiful  shade. 


G28  THE   AMERICAN  DYER. 

Methyle  Green. 
No.  5.     Three-fold  Yarn  (coarse),  60  lbs. 

Dissolve  seven  ounces  methyle-green  crystals  in  a  pail  of 
water  ;  pour  one-third  into  a  tub  of  water  at  130°  Fahr.  ;  rake 
up  well,  enter  yarn,  and  give  seven  turns;  take  it  out  and 
heat  up  to  170°  Fahr.  ;  put  in  one-third  more  of  the  dissolved 
crystals,  rake  up,  re-enter  yarn  again,  give  seven  ends  more, 
take  out  the  yarn  again,  and  raise  the  heat  to  200°  Fahr. 
Pour  in  the  remainder  of  the  methyle  crystals,  rake  up,  and 
re-enter  the  ^arn  ;  give  seven  turns,  take  out  and  air. 

Now  in  a  tub  of  fresh  cold  water,  put  half  a  pound  picric 
acid  and  two  quarts  oil  of  vitriol  (be  sure  that  the  picric  acid 
is  all  dissolved).  Enter  the  yarn  at  a  ^^ double  quick,"  give  it 
a  few  lively  turns,  then  turn  for  three-fourths  of  an  hour ; 
take  out  and  wash  off. 

This  is  a  very  difBcult  color  to  get  even,  so  you  must 
handle  it  veiy  quick  at  first,  especially  in  the  picric-acid  bath. 

Cardinal-Red. 
No.  6.     Three-fold  Yarn  (coarse),  60  lbs. 

8  oz.  Cardinal  Aniline, 
1  oz.  Martins  Yellow. 
Enter  yarn  at  190°  Fahr.,  give  nine  turns.     Take  out,  raise 
the  heat  to  boiling-point,  and  add  six  ounces  more  of  cardinal 
aniline.     Rake  up  well,  re-enter  yarn,  and  give  nine  turns; 
take  out  and  wash  off. 

For  next  sixty  pounds,  in  same  liquor,  use  one  ounce  Mar- 
tins yellow,  and  twelve  ounces  cardinal  aniline  ;  use  the  ani- 
line twice,  as  for  first  lot,  and  proceed  the  same. 

Medium  Blue. 
Three-fold  Yarn,  100  lbs. 

4  lbs.  Nicholson's  B  Blue, 
6  lbs.  Sal-soda. 


THE   AMERIOAIf   DYER.  629 

Give  nine  turns ;  take  up,  and  raise  the  heat  to  200°  Fahr. 
Re-enter  the  yarn,  and  give  five  turns  more  ;  take  out,  and 
wash  off. 

In  another  tub  of  water,  at  140°  Fahr.,  put 
2|  lbs.  Yellow  Prussiate  of  Potash, 
6    lbs.  Oil  of  Vitriol. 

Enter  yarn  and  give  five  turns  ;  take  out,  raise  the  heat  to 
170°  Fahr.  Re-enter  the  yarn  ;  give  five  turns  more  ;  take  out, 
raise  to  the  boiling-point.  Re-enter  yarn  ;  give  seven  turns 
more  ;  take  out,  and  wash  off. 

For  the  next  one  hundred  pounds  of  yarn,  add  to  the  first 
tub— 

1^  lbs.  Nicholson  B  Blue, 
3     lbs.  Sal-soda. 
Enter,  and  proceed  as  for  the  first  one  hundred  pounds. 
The  second,  or  finishing  tub,  must  always   be  a  fresh  one, 
as  the  prussiate  will  be  all  taken  up,  and  the  result  will  not 
be  satisfactory,  if  you  should  try  to   use   it  again  by  adding 
more  prussiate. 

Dark  Nicholsox  Blue. 
Four-fold  Yarn,  50  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

I  lb.    Nicholson  2  B's  Blue, 
1^  lbs.  Borax. 
Add   the   borax  to  the  bath  first,  then  the  dye.     Enter  at 
120°  Fahr.     Give  nine  turns  ;  take  out  the  yarn,  and  raise  the 
heat  to  boiling-point.     Re-enter  the  yarn,  and  give  nine  turns 
more  ;  take  out,  and 
Develop  at  120°  Fahr. 

3  pints  Oil  of  Vitriol. 
Give  the  yarn  five  turns ;  take  out,  and  wash  off. 

Light  Nicholson  Blue. 
Four-fold  Yarn,  50  lbs. 


630  THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 

2  oz.  Nicholson  2  B's  Blue, 
I  11).  Borax. 

Proceed  as  for  dark  Nicholson  blue,  aud  develop  the  same 
as  for  the  dark  color. 

These  five  shades  of  aniline  blue  are  all  the  style  just  now 
(April,  1878). 

Orange. 
Two-fold  Yarn,  50  lbs. 

I  lb.       Cochineal, 
15  oz.      Flaviue, 
^  lb.       Oxalic  Acid, 
i  lb.       White  Tartar, 
1  quart  Muriate  of  Tin. 
Enter  yarn  at  160°  Fahr.,  give  nine  turns ;  take  it  out ;  raise 
the    heat   to    boiling-point.      Re-enter  yarn  and  give    nine 
turns  more  ;  take  out  and  wash  off. 

Light  Orange. 
Single-run  Yarn,  40  lbs.     Size  six  runs. 

Prepare  with — 

5  lbs.    Alum, 

3  lbs.    Tartar, 

6  oz.     Flavine, 

1  oz.     Cochineal, 
6  gills  Scarlet  Spirits, 
6  gills  Yellow  Spirits. 
Proceed  as  for  the  above  orange. 

Orange. 
Single-run  Worsted  Yarn,  40  lbs. 

1  lb.     Flavine, 
I  lb.     Cochineal, 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  631 

2  lbs.    Tartar, 
8  gills  Scarlet  Spirits, 
8  gills  Yellow  Spirits. 
Enter  yarn  aud  proceed  as  for  the  above  oranges. 

Salmon  Color. 
Two-fold  Yarn,  35  lbs. 

5  oz.      Cochineal, 

1  oz.      Flavine  (short-weight), 

1  lb.      Tartar, 

1  quart  Muriate  of  Tin. 
Enter  the  yarn,  cool,  give   seven"  turns;  take  it  out,  raise 
the  heat  to  a  boil.     Re-enter  yarn,  give  seven  turns  more, 
take  out  and  wash  off. 

Chrome  Brown. 
Two-fold  Yarn,  50  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

1^  lbs.  Chrome, 
1  lb.    Alum, 
f  lb.    Tartar. 
Enter  yarn  at  180°  Fahr.,  give  nine  turns  ;  take  it  out,  raise 
.he  heat  to  a  boil.     Re-enter  the  yarn  aud  turn  for  three- 
fourths  of  an  hour;  take  out. 
Finish  with — 

5  lbs.  Madder, 
10  lbs.  Camwood, 

5|  lbs.  Ground  Fustic, 

6  oz.    Brazil-wood, 
5  oz.    Logwood. 

Boil  these  one  hour.     Enter  as  for  the  preparation,  and  pro- 
ceed the  same  way. 

Dark  Brown. 
Two-fold  Yarn,  35  lbs. 


632  THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 

Prepare  with — 

1^  lbs.  Chrome, 
I  lb.  Alum. 
Finish  with — 

3  lbs.  Madder, 

3  lbs.  Fustic, 

31^  lbs..  Brazil-wood, 
12  lbs.  Camwood, 

4  oz.    Logwood. 

Proceed  in  all  respects  as  for  chrome  brown. 

Light  Cinnamox-Brown. 
Two-fold  Yarn,  35  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

1  lb.    Chrome, 
6  oz.    Alum. 
Finish  with — 

2|  lbs.  Fustic, 
4|  lbs.  Brazil-wood, 
6  lbs.  Camwood, 

5  lbs.  Barwood, 
3  oz.    Logwood. 

Proceed  as  for  the  dirome  brown. 

Purple. 
Jacket  Yarn,  50  lbs. 

15  lbs.  Cudbear, 

^  lb.    Roseine, 

^  lb.    Picric  Acid, 

9  lbs.  Extract  of  Indigo. 
Boil  these  for  fifteen  minutes ;  then  add — 

3  quarts  Oil  of  Vitriol, 
15  lbs.  Glauber  Salts, 
10  lbs.      Alum. 


THE   AI^IERICAN"   DYER.  633 

Cool  down,  and  rake  up  well.  Enter  the  yarn,  give  nine 
turns  ;  take  it  out,  and  raise  the  heat  to  a  boil.  Re-enter  the 
yarn,  and  give  nine  turns,  or  turn  until  the  shade  suits  you. 

Light  Slate. 
Twofold  Yarn,  35  lbs. 

1|  lbs.  Ground  Logwood, 
1\  lbs.  Ground  Fustic, 
10  oz.    Sumac. 
Boil  these  twenty  minutes  ;  then  add — 

8  oz.    Alum, 

9  oz.    Extract  of  Indigo. 

Rake  up  well ;  cool  down.  Enter  yarn,  and  proceed  as  for 
purple. 

Silver-Drab. 

Twofold  Yarn,  50  lbs. 

18  oz.  Madder, 
13  oz.  Bar  wood, 
10  oz.  Ground  Logwood, 
10  oz.  Sumac, 
5  oz.  Nutgalls, 
4  oz.  Cudbear. 
Boil  these  for  twenty-five  minutes.     Cool  down,  and  enter 
yarn  ;  give  seven  turns  ;  take  out,  raise  the  heat  to  a  boiling 
point.     Re-enter  yarn,  give  seven  turns  ;  take  out  yarn,  and 
add  to  the  tub — 

2  oz.  Copperas. 

Rake  up  and  re-enter  the  yarn,  and  give  five  turns ;  take 
out  and  wash  off. 

Yellow-Drab. 
Threefold  Yarn,  35  lbs. 

I  lb.    Chrome, 

3  oz.    Alum, 
3  oz.    Tartar. 

80 


634  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

Proceed  as  for  the  browns. 
Finish  with — 

1^  ll)s.  Camwood, 

1  11).    Madder, 

13  oz.    Ground  Fustic. 
Proceed  as  for  brown. 

Slate-Drab. 

Threefold  Yarn,  50  lbs. 

4^  lbs.  Ground  Logwood, 

2  lbs.  Barwood, 
If  lbs.  Madder, 

7  oz.  Ground  Fustic, 
12  oz.  Sumac. 
Boil  these  for  twenty-five  minutes,  then  cool  down  and  add 
five  ounces  alum.  Enter  the  yarn,  and  give  seven  turns  ;  take 
it  up,  and  raise  the  heat  to  the  boil ;  add  "six  ounces  more  of 
alum  ;  rake  up,  and  enter  the  yarn  ;  give  nine  turns  ;  take  it 
out  and  wash  off. 

Blue-Violet. 
Threefold  Yarn,  40  lbs. 

Dissolve  two  and  a  half  ounces  Hoffmann's  2  B's  violet,  and 
half  an  ounce  of  golden  roseine  together,  in  some  convenient 
vessel.  Pour  one-half  of  this  into  a  tub  of  clean  vvater, 
heated  to  150°  Fahr.  Rake  up  well,  enter  the  yarn,  give 
seven  turns,  take  out  the  yarn,  heat  up  the  tub  to  200°  Fahr. 
Add  the  rest  of  the  dissolved  anilines  ;  rake  up,  enter  the 
yarn  ;  give  nine  turns  more,  take  out  and  wash  off. 

Light  Red- Violet. 
Threefold  Yarn,  40  lbs. 

1  oz.  Hoffmann's  2  B's  violet, 
1^  oz.  Roseine  Crystals. 
Proceed  as  for  the  blue-violet  in  all  respects. 


THE    AMERTCAX   DYER.  G35 

Green. 
Threefold  Yarn,  25  lbs. 

2|  lbs.  Extract  of  Indigo,  good, 
1    lb.    Ahim. 
Enter  yarn  at  170°Fahr.  ;  turn  it  until  it  becomes  even  ;  then 
take  it  out  and  add — 

6|^  oz.    Picric  Acid, 
\  pint  Oil  of  Vitriol. 
Rake  up.  well,  re-enter  the  yarn,  and  give  five  turns  more. 
Take  out  quicldy,  and  wash  off.     After  giving  five  turns,  if 
it  is  not  as  dark  as  you  wish,  give  it  a  few  turns  more  before 
taking  it  out. 

Another  Cardinal. 
Threefold  Yarn,  50  lbs. 

4  oz.  Flavine, 
8  oz.  Roseine. 
Enter  yarn  at  170°  Fahr,  give  seven  turns,  raise  out  the 
yarn,  heat  up  to  boiling-point.     Re-enter  yarn,  give  seven 
turns  more  ;  take  out  and  wash  oflf. 

If  the  color  should  be  too  red  when  finished,  add  two  or 
three  ounces  more  flavine,  and  put  the  yarn  in  again,  and  give 
a  few  more  turns. 

A  Light  Blue-Green. 

Single  Yarn  size,  8^^  runs,  40  lbs. 

21  lbs.  Indigo  Paste, 

1^  oz.    Picric  Acid, 

12  lbs.  Alum. 

Enter  cool,  give  seven  turns,  take  up,  raise  the  heat  to 

200°  Fahr.     Re-enter  the  yarn,  and  give  seven  turns  more; 

take  out,  and  in  a  fresh  bath  at   120°  Fahr.,  put  one  pint  oil 

of  vitriol,  enter  yarn,  give  five  turns;  take  out  and  wash  off. 


636  THE    AMEKICAX   DYEK. 

Green. 
Twofokl  Worsted  Yarn,  10  lbs. 

2  oz.  Iodine  Green  Crystals. 

Enter  yarn  cold.     Proceed  as  for  the  threefold  yarn  greeu. 
In  the  finishing  bath  use — 
H  oz.    Picric  Acid, 
i  gill  Oil  of  Vitriol. 
On  this  and  the  methyle  green  you  naust  he  sure  to  follow 
the  way  laid  down  in  regard  to  the  manupulati07is ,  or  the 
result  will  not  be  satisfactory. 

These  ^reens  can  be  varied  either  to  the  blue  or  srreener 
shade,  by  using  more  or  less  picric  acid  in  the  finishing  bath. 

Canary  (a  splendid  shade). 
Threefold  Yarn  (coarse),  5  lbs. 

3  oz.     Flavine, 

3|^  oz.    AVhite  Tartar, 

3  gills    Muriate  of  Tin. 

Enter  cool.  Turn  yarn  for  half  an  hour ;  take  out,  raise 
the  heat  to  boiling-point.  Re-enter  the  yarn,  and  turn  for 
twenty  minutes  longer;  take  out,  and  wash  off. 

Light  Bluish-Drab. 

Single  Yarn,  20  lbs.     Size,  7  runs. 

Prepare  with — 

21  lbs.  Alum, 

4  lbs.  Tartar, 

4  oz.      Extract  Indigo, 

2  oz.      Ground  Fustic, 

11  lbs.  Madder. 
Enter  yarn  atl90^Fahr.     Turn  for  ten  minutes.     Turn  on 
the  steam,  and  turn  until  it  comes  to  a  boil ;  then  take  out, 
and  wash  off. 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  G37 


Light  Reddish-Drab. 
Single  Yarn,  40  lbs.     Size,  7  runs. 

4  oz.  Extract  Indigo, 

1  lb.  Cochineal, 

2  lbs.  Gronnd  Fustic, 
2  lbs.  Alum, 

2  lbs.  Tartar. 

Proceed  in  all  respects  as  for  the  light  bluish-drab. 

Scarlet. 
Twofpld  W.orsted  Yarn,  40  lbs. 

Dissolve  nine  and  a  half  ounces  of  luteciene  in  boilingr 
water,  and  one  pound  tartaric  acid.  Enter  the  yarn  at 
150°  Fahr.  (using  one-third  of  the  acid  and  lueticene)  ;  give 
the  yarn  five  turns ;  take  it  out ;  raise  the  heat  to  the  boil, 
put  in  the  remainder  of  the  acid  and  luteciene,  rake  up"  well, 
re-enter  the  yarn,  and  turn  for  twenty  minutes  longer;  take 
out,  and  wash  off. 

Scarlet. 
Threefold  Yarn,  100  lbs. 

10  lbs.  Lac  Dye, 

3  lbs.  Cochineal, 
2  lbs.  Tartar, 

1  lb.    Oxalic  Acid, 
10  lbs.  Scarlet  Spirits. 
Boil  these  for  twenty  minutes,  then  cool  down.     Enter  the 
yarn,  and  give  seven  turns ;  take  it  out,  raise  the  heat  to  boil, 
re-enter  the  yarn,  and  give  seven  turns  more;  take  out,  and 
wash  off. 


038  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

REMARKS  ON  COTTON-WASTE  DYEING. 

Having  colored  with  these  recipes  for  some  time,  and  given 
the  preference  to  them  above  all  others,  on  account  of  their 
certainty  and  effectiveness,  they  can  be  fully  relied  upon  for 
the  accuracy  of  their  results.  You  will  find  observations  at- 
tached to  such  of  them  as  will  require  any  deviation  from  the 
usual  way  or  mode  of  dyeing. 

In  making  up  the  liquors  according  to  the  recipes,  care 
must  at  all  times  be  taken  to  have  all  the  solutions,  when 
ready  for  the  cotton,  free  from  all  ground  or  chipped  dye- 
stufts  and  all  undissolved  coloring-matters.  The  liquors  must 
be  clear,  and  all  the  solutions  of  the  bath  held  in  solution. 
If  you  have  to  use  sumac,  or  any  ground  dyestuffs,  boil  them 
out  in  a  barrel,  or  some  convenient  vessel,  and  add  the  clear 
solutions  to  the  dyeing-bath.  But  it  is  more  convenient  to 
use  the  extracts,  as  they  contain  more  tannin,  or  astringent 
principle  (than  the  rough  dyestufis),  which  has  a  great  alBSu- 
ity  for  cotton.  In  using  the  extracts,  you  can  keep  the  dye- 
ing liquors  at  about  the  same  strength,  and  for  a  long  time, 
by  fishing  out  the  cotton  from  the  tub  after  each  dip. 

Black  (at  one  operation). 
No.   1.     Raw  Cotton,  100  lbs. 

100  lbs.  Chip  Logwood, 
12  lbs.  Cutch, 

25  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood. 
Boil  those  one  hour;  then  add  to  it  one  pint  ammonia  FFF. 
Boil  one-half  hour  longer  ;  take  out  the  bags  and  add — 
5  pints  Ammonia, 
5  pints  Nitrate  of  Copper. 
Rake  up  the  tub  ;  enter  cotton  as  expeditiously  as  possible  ; 
pole  up  for  a  few  minutes  ;  then  boil  gently  for   two  hours ; 
leave  the  cotton  in  until  next  morning ;  fish  it  out  and  cover 
up  with  sheets  until  the  next  day  ;  then  wash  off.' 


THE   AMERIOAI^^   DYER. 


639 


COTTON   SAMPLE. 

Ko.  1.  — Black,  at  oxk  oi'KitATiox. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  641 

To  renew  for  next  100  lbs.  Cotton. 
75  lbs.  Chip  Logwood, 
10  lbs.  Cutch, 
22  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood. 

1  pint  Ammonia. 

4  pints  Ammonia, 

4  pints  of  Nitrate  of  Copper. 
Proceed  as  for  first  100  lbs.  in  all  respects. 
For  third  or  standard  recipe.     Cotton,  100  lbs. 

25  lbs.  Chip  Logwood, 

8  lbs.  Cutch, 
24  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood, 

\-  pint  Ammonia. 

4  pints  Ammonia, 

4  pints  Nitrate  of  Copper. 
Proceed  as  for  first  100  lbs.  cotton. 

This  black  you  will  see  is  done  at  one  dip  and  will  resist 
the  fuliinff  and  scourino:  as  well  as  black  wool.  If  a  blue- 
black  is  wanted  use — 

5  lbs.  Extract  of  Hemlock, 
5  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood. 

Take  out. 

/ 

To    MAKE     THE     NiTRATE    OF    CoPPER. 

To  every  pound  of  nitric  acid,  40°  Fahr.,  use  three  ounces 
copper-scraps  or  turnings  ;  add  it  to  the  acid  very  gradually. 
Or  thus — 

12  lbs.  Nitric  Acid,  at  40°  Twaddle, 

2^  lbs.  Copper  Scraps. 
Kill  as  above. 
The  copper  must  be  perfectly  yVee  from  tin  or  solder. 

81 


642  THE    A^IERICAN    DYEK. 

When  the  cotton  is  taken  out  it  will  be  brown-colored,  but 
will  turn  to  black  after  being  covered  up  a  while.  Should 
the  cotton,  when  dry,  have  a  purple  shade,  it  will  do  no  harm 
as  it  will  full  to  a  jet-black  :  but  when  this  is  the  case  reduce 
the  dyestuff  a  little  for  one  or  two  lots,  and  especially  the 
ammonia.  After  coloring  four  or  five  lots,  you  can  then  color 
one  hundred  and  twenty  five  pounds  of  cotton  at  a  time  with 
the  same  amount  of  dyestuffs. 


RECIPES  FOR  COLORING  COTTON  OR  COTTOX- 

WASTE. 
Blacks. 
Blacks  and  browns  are  the  most  common  colors  put  upon 
cotton-waste. 

Black. 

Cotton,  200  lbs. 

45  lbs.  Catechu  or  Cutch, 
25  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood, 
10  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Boil  these  materials  uutil  dissolved.     Shake  up   the  cotton 
and  enter  it  at  a  boil  and  pole  up  well :  let  it  boil  gently  for 
one  hour ;  leave  it  in  the  tub  all  night ;  in   the   morning  fish 
the  cotton  out.     Then  strengthen  the  liquor  with — 
50  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood, 
7  lbs.  Soda-ash, 
3  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
"When  these  are  dissolved  and  the  foaming  of  the  liquor  has 
ceased,  enter  the  cotton   again    and  boil  for  one-half  hour, 
leaving  it  in  the  solution  all  night.     Li  the  morning,  fish  out 
and  wash  off  the  cotton. 

The  above  quantities  of  materials  are  for  starting  a  new 
dye,  or  for  the  first  two  hundred  pounds  of  cotton. 


THE   AMERICAIf   DYER.  643 

For  the  second  two  hundred  pounds  of  cotton,  add  to  the 
above  liquor — 

15  lbs.  Cutch, 
7  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood, 

3  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 

Black. 

Cotton,  300  lbs. 

300  lbs.  Chip  Logwood, 
30  lbs.  Chip  Fustic. 

Boil  these  woods  out.  Take  out  the  bags,  and  add  to  the 
liquor  fifteen  lbs.  blue  vitriol,  ten  lbs.  brown  sugar  of  lead. 
When  they  are  dissolved,  enter  the  cotton,  and  boil  it  two 
hours.  Fish  out  the  cotton.  Then  add  to  the  liquor,  ten 
lbs.  blue  vitriol,  fifteen  ll)s.  soda  ash.  Enter  the  cotton  at 
150°  Fahr.  Pole  up  well,  each  time.  Leave  the  cotton  in 
all  night.  By  this  method  we  can  color  three  hundred  lbs.  per 
day,  by  preparing  (giving  one  dip  in  the  forenoon)  in  the 
forenoon,  and  finishing  in  the  afternoon.  The  cotton,  by  col- 
oring in  this  manner,  comes  out  with  a  brownish  shade ;  but 
when  it  is  scoured  it  turns  to  a  jet  black.  For  the  second 
three  hundred  lbs.,  in  the  same  liquor,  add  two  hundred 
and  fifty  lbs.  chip  logwood,  and  twenty-five  lbs.  chip  fustic. 
Boil  out  as  for  first  time,  and  add  ten  lbs.  blue  vitriol,  and 
eight  lbs.  sugar  of  load.  For  the  second  dip  for  the  second 
three  hundred  lbs.  cotton,  add  eight  lbs.  blue  vitriol,  and 
twelve  lbs.  soda-ash.  Proceed  as  above  in  all  respects.  The 
longer  this  solution  is  used,  the  better  is  the  color.  It  is  the 
best  black  produced  by  any  similar  method. 

Proceed  as  before.     Then  add  to  the  liquor — 
25  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood, 

4  lbs.  Soda-ash, 

2  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Re-enter  the  cotton  as  before.     Let  it  stay  in  all  night,  and 
proceed  in  after-dyeings  with  the  same  amount  of  cotton  and 


644:  THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 


ingredients.  The  solution,  in  each  instance,  should  be  of  a 
bluish-red  purple  when  the  cotton  is  to  be  entered  the  second 
time.  The  color  of  the  cotton  may  not  be  as  deep  as  desired 
in  the  first  tubful,  but  the  liquor  will  improve  by  age,  and 
will  give  you  colors  that  will  be  satisfactory  after  the  second 
two  hundred  pounds.  Wash  off  the  cotton  always  after  being 
finished,  but  give  air  and  all  the  time  you  can  spare  before 
washing  off. 

Black, 

This  is  a  good  and  cheap  black  for  jeans. 

Cotton,  125  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

3  lbs.  Chrome, 
3  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Enter  cotton,  and  boil  one  hour.     Draw  off,  and  extract  the 
cotton.     Then  finish  with — 

50  lbs.  Chip  Logwood, 
15  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood, 
15  lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 
2  lbs.  Soda-ash, 
2  lbs.  Palm  Oil. 
Boil  out  the  woods.     Then  add  the  oil  and  soda-ash.    Then 
enter  the  cotton,  pole  up  well,  and  boil  one  hour.     Leave  it 
in  as  long  as  possible. 

Black. 
Cotton,  225  lbs. 

Tannin  Process. 
6  lbs.  Extract  of  Fustic, 
25  lbs.  Cutch, 
5  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Dissolve  all  together.     Enter  the  cotton.     Boil  one  hour. 
Leave  in  all  night.     In  the  morning,  take  out,  and  drain  or 
extract  the  cotton  thoroughly.     Save  this  liquor  for  further  use. 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  (545 

Mordant  Process. 
8  lbs.  Chrome, 
8  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Enter  the  cotton  at  a  boiling  heat.     Let  it  remain  in  this 
mordant  two   or  three  hours;  do  not    boil  in  the  mordant. 
Extract  the  cotton,  and  shake  it  up  well. 

Dyeing  Process. 
30  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood, 

2  lbs.  Extract  of  Fustic, 

3  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 

Enter  the  cotton  quickly  ;  pole  up  well ;  boil  half  an  hour, 
and  let  it  remain  in  the  liquor  as  long  as  possible. 

This  is  the  softest  and  most  permanent  black  on  raw  cotton 
that  can  be  dyed. 

For  the  next  two  hundred  and  twenty-five  lbs.  of  cotton, 
add  to  the  tannin  liquor — 

4  lbs.  Extract  of  Fustic, 
18  lbs.  Cutch, 

2\  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol, 
and  pit)ceed  with  the  mordant  and  dyeing  process  as  above. 

Black. 
Cotton,  300  lbs. 

50  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood, 

30  lbs.  Cutch, 

10  lbs.  Brown  Sugar  of  Lead, 

10  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Enter  the  cotton  at  a  boil,  pole  up  well,  and  boil  one  and  a 
half  hours  ;  leave  it  in  over  night.     Next  morning  fish  out ; 
then  add  to  the  liquor — 

15  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol, 

15  lbs.  Soda-ash. 


6iG  THE    AMERICAN    DYER. 

Enter  the  cotton  at  a  boil,  pole  up  well,  and  let  it  remain 
in  as  long  as  possible. 

For  the  next  three  hundred  pounds  cotton,  add  to  the  tub — 
40  lbs.  Extract  Logwood, 
25  lbs.  Culch, 

8  lbs.  Brown  Sugar  of  Lead, 

8  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 

Proceed  as  above  ;  and  for  the  second  dip  add — 
12  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol, 
12  lbs.  Soda-ash. 
And  proceed  in  all  respects  as  above.' 

Shake  up  the  cotton  loosely  between  the  two  dips,  as  well 
as  before  entering  it  into  the  tub  for  the  first  time.  This  is 
the  best  black  that  can  be  dyed  by  the  two-dips  method. 


Slates,  or  the  Minor  Shades  of  Black. 

It  is  in  these  minor  colors,  more  than  any  other,  that  expe- 
rience and  judgment  in  the  dyer  are  absolutely  indispensable. 
The  variety  in  tone  of  numerous  fancy  shades  being  so  great, 
no  recipe  can  be  given  to  color  any  particular  pattern.  The 
numerous  shades  are  principally  due  to  the  diminution  of  the 
original  color  to  which  they  belong. 

Thus,  all  the  slates  point  directlj'^  to  the  black,  and  the 
drabs  to  the  olive,  and  the  fawns  to  the  brown,  as  the  source 
from  which  they  separately  proceed.  They  represent  three 
separate  scales  of  color,  divided  into  as  many  parts  as  there 
nre  distinct  varieties  in  their  appearance,  each  variety  repre- 
senting one  degree,  or  quantity  of  color,  more  or  less,  than 
the  one  preceding  or  following  it,  in  an  apparently  graduating 
scale.  We  shall,  therefore,  only  give  recipes  for  such  par- 
ticular shades  as  we  have  colored,  which  range  from  the 
darkest  slate  to  lead. 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  647 

Dark  Slate. 

Cotton,  200  lbs. 

3()  lbs.  Chip  Logwood, 
13  lbs.  Sumac. 
After  boiling  these  one  and  Ji  half  hours,  enter  the  cotton  ; 
pole  up  well  ;  boil  one  and  a   half  hours.     Let  the  cotton  lie 
in  the  liquor  as  long  as  you  can  before  saddening ;  then  use 
iu  saddening, 

4  11)8.  Copperas. 
Dissolve  the   copperas  in   some  convenient  vessel  (half  a 
barrel)  before  throwing  it   upon   the   cotton;   pole  up   well. 
Do  not  boil  after  saddening  it,  but  leave  in  the  cotton  as  long 
as  possil)le. 

Slate. 
Cotton,  225  lbs. 

12  lbs.  Extract  Logwood, 

10  lbs.  Sumac. 
Proceed  as  with  No.  22  ;  then  sadden  with 

6  lbs.  Copperas. 
Boil  one-half  hour.     Leave  in  as  long  as  possible. 

Another  Dark  Slate. 
Cotton,  200  lbs. 

40  lbs.  Cutch, 
20  lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 
8  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol, 
40  lbs.  Chip  Logwood. 
Boil  one  and  a  half  hours  ;  then  enter  the  cotton  at  a  boil, 
pole  well,  and  boil  one  hour,  and  let  it  remain   iu  the  liquor 
two  hours  :   fish  out,  and  add  to  the  liquor, 
40  lbs.  Chip  Logwood, 
4  lbs.  Soda-ash. 


648  THE    AMERICA]^^   DYER. 

Boil  these  one  and  a  half  hours ;  then  add 

4  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Ee-entei*the  cotton  as  usual.     Let  it  remain  in  all  night. 


Light  Slate. 
Cotton,  200  lbs. 

20  lbs.  Cutch, 

20  lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 

40  lbs.  Chip  Logwood. 

Boil  these  materials  one  hour ;  then  add — 

5  lbs.  Soda-ash, 

7  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Enter  the  cotton,  boil  one  hour,  and  leave  in  all  night. 


Lead. 
Cotton,  175  lbs. 

7  lbs.  Cutch, 
1|  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood. 

After  these  are  dissolved,  add — 
2  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol, 
4  lbs.  Copperas. 

Eake  up  the  tub,  and  enter  the  cotton  ;  pole  up  well,  and 
boil  one  hour ;  leave  the  cotton  in  this  all  night. 

Any  variations  from  these  shades  can  be  obtained,  by 
different  proportions  and  amount  of  the  several  materials- 
mentioned  in  the  recipes. 

If  these  shades  are  required  to  incline  more  to  the  black, 
use  more  logwood  ;  if  more  to  the  olive  shade,  use  more 
fustic;  if  more  to  the  brown,  use  more  of  the  cutch.  But  as 
stated  at  the  beginning  of  these  recipes,  the  dyer  will  have  to 
depend  upon  his  own  skill  and  knowledge  in  these  matters. 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  649 


Brown. 
This  color,  when  it  is  dyed  by  the  best  methods,  will  continu- 
ally grow  richer  and  deeper,  the  longer  it  is  exposed  to. the  at- 
mosphere, and  the  process  of  manufacturing  produces  beneficial 
effects  upon,  and  for  these  reasons  it  is  one  of  the  best  colors 
that  can  be  made  upon  cotton  to  mix  with  wool.  There  are 
a  variety  of  shades  of  brown,  consisting  chiefly  of  three 
separate  or  distinct  peculiarities:  the  dark,  brown,  yellow 
brown,  and  red  brown.  The  other  varieties  are  obtained  by 
a  variation  in  the  quantity  of  the  material  used  to  color  brown. 

Brown. 
Cotton,  180  lbs. 

100  lbs.  Cutch, 
65  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood, 
10  lbs.  Sumac, 
6  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Enter  the  cotton  at  a  boil,  pole  up  well,  boil  one  hour,  and 
leave  it  in  the  solution  all  night ;  then  fish  it  out,  and  save  the 
liquor  for  further  use;  extract  the  cotton,  or  drain  it  well. 
In  another  tub  of  clear  water,  dissolve  six  pounds  chrome ; 
enter  the  cotton  (after  being  well  shook  out)  at  a  boiling  heat ; 
pole  up  well ;  leave  it  in  for  two  hours;  draw  off;  air  well. 
Drain  it,  or  what  is  better,  extract  it. 

For  the  next  two  hundred  pounds,  use  a  quarter  less  mate- 
rial in  the  first  bath,  but  always  have  a  fresh  bath  for  the 
second  dip,  using  the  same  amount  of  chrome,  and  proceed 
in  all  respects  as  for  the  first  180  lbs.  cotton. 

Broavn. 
Cotton,  225  lbs. 

75  lbs.  Cutch, 
20  lbs.  Sumac, 
5  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 

82 


650  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

Enter  the  cotton  at  a  boil,  and  boil  until  the  cotton  is  satu- 
rated.    Let  it  stay  in  the  tub  all  night.     Take  it  out  in  the 
morning,  and  let  it  drain  well  or  else  extract  it.     Shake  it  up 
well ;  then  dissolve  in  a  fresh  bath  — 
6  lbs.  Chrome, 

5  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 

Enter  the  cotton  at  a  boiling  heat,  boil  half  an  hour ;  leave 
it  in  two  or  three  hours  ;  air  well  before  washing  it  off. 
For  the  next  225  lbs.  cotton,  add  to  the  first  bath — 
50  lbs.  Cutch, 
15  lbs.  Sumac, 
2  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Proceed  as  above. 

Second  Dip. 

6  lbs.  Chrome, 

5  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
For  every  succeeding  225  lbs.,  use  the  same  amount  of  dye- 
stuffs.     But  the  second  dip  or  mordant  bath  must  be  drawn 
off  each  time. 

Another  Brown. 
A  very  good  and  cheap  one. 
Cotton,  150  lbs. 

40  lbs.  Cutch, 

10  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood, 

5  lbs.  Extract  of  Fustic, 

6  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 

Enter  the  cotton,  and  boil  one  hour.     Let  it  remain  in  the 
tub  all  night.     In  the  morning,  fish  it  out,  and  let  it  drain 
well.     Add  to  the  liquor — 
30  lbs.  Cutch, 

7  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 

Re-enter  the  cotton,  boil  gently  half  an  hour,  and  let  it  re- 
main as  long  as  convenient :  fish  out  and  wash  off  the  cotton. 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  651 

Second  Dyeing  in  the  same  liquor. 
Cotton,  150  11)8. 

35  lbs.  Cutch, 
5  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood, 
3  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Enter  the  cotton,  and   boil  one  hour.     Let  it  remain  in  as 
long  as  j)ossible  (four  or  tive  hours)  ;  tish  out,  and  drain  it  as 
long  as  time  will  allow. 

Add  to  the  same  liquor  — 
25  lbs.  Cutch, 
8  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Re-enter  the  cotton;  boil  half  an  hour;  let  it  stay  in  all 
night.     By  this  method  we  can  color  one  hundred  and  fifty 
pounds  of  cotton  per  day,  in  the  same  tub,  by  always  enter- 
ing for  the  second  dip  late  in  the  afternoon,  which  will  give 
the  cotton  a  chance  to  imbibe  the  color  more  fully  by  lying 
in  the  solution  all  nisht. 


Brown. 
Tannin  Process. 


Cotton,  200  lbs. 


50  lbs.  Cutch, 
8  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Enter  cotton  at  a  boiling  heat ;  pole  up  well ;  let  it  steep  over 
night ;  next  morning  fish  it  out;  drain  or  extract  it  then  in  a 
fresh  bath.     Dissolve  as 

Mordant. 

Chrome,  6  lbs. — 

Enter  the  cotton  at  a  boil  heat ;  pole  up  well  ;  leave  in  two 
or  three  hours  ;  draw  of;  take  out  the  cotton  and  extract.  In 
a  fresh  bath,  boil  up  for  one  and  a  half  hours. 


652  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

Dyeing. 
30  lbs.  Hypernic, 

20  lbs.  Chip  Logwood  ;  then  add  — 
10  lbs.  Alum. 
Enter  the  cotton,  and  boil  one  hour;  draw  off;  then  wash 
the  cotton.     The  first  liquor  can  be  saved,  and  for  the  next 
two  hundred  pounds  of  cotton,  add  to  it  — 
40  lbs.  Cutch, 
6  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
The  second  and  third  baths  must  be  drawn  off. 


Another  Brown,  Lighter  than  the  Last. 
Cotton,  200  lbs. 

The  tannin  and  mordant  baths  are  the  same  as  for  the  last 
brown.     The  dyeing-bath  is  made  up  with  — 

40  lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 

40  lbs.  Chip  Hypernic, 

10  lbs.  Alum.  ^ 

Proceed  in  all  respects  as  for  the  preceding  brown. 


Brown,  Lighter  than  either  of  the  Above. 
Cotton,  125  lbs. 

45  lbs.  Cutch, 

30  lbs.  Camwood. 

Boil  the  cutch  and  camwood  two  hours ;  then  enter  the 

cotton,  and  boil  half  an  hour;  then  throw  on  six  pounds  of 

blue  vitriol ;  pole  up  well,  and  boil  half  an  hour  longer  ;  draw 

off  the  tub,  take  out  the  cotton  and  extract  it.     In  a  fresh 

bath  dissolve, 

\ 

7  lbs.  Chrome, 
5  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 


THE   AMERICAN   DTER.  653 

Re-enter  the  cotton  at  a  boiling  heat ;  pole  up  well ;  leave  it 
in  for  one  or  two  hours  ;  then  draw  off;  wash  off  the  cotton. 

Nos.  13,  14,  and  15  are  perfectly  fast  colors,  and  will  resist 
all  the  fulling  and  scouring  that  any  color  will  on  wool. 

Dark  Brown. 
200  lbs.  Cotton. 

First  bath.    40  lbs.  Cutch, 

15  lbs   Camwood, 
3  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Boil  the  cutch  and  camwood  one  hour;  then  add  the  blue 
vitriol ;  enter  the  cotton  and  boil   one  hour ;  let  it  remain  in 
the  solution  three  or  four  hours  ;  then  tish  it  out,  and  keep  the 
solution  for  further  use. 

Second  bath.    12  lbs.  Chrome. 

Boil  the  cotton  for  twelve  or  fifteen  minutes  ;  leave  it  in  for 
a  few  hours ;  then  draw  off ;  take  out  the  cotton  and  rinse 
it  off. 

For  the  second  two  hundred  pounds  of  cotton,  add  to  the 
first  bath,  » 

30  lbs.  Cutch,     / 
10  lbs.  Camwood^  and 
2  lbs.  Bhie  Vitriol, 
and  proceed  as  for  first  two  hundred  pounds.     The  second,  or 
chrome  bath,  will  be' the  same  as  for  the  first. 

Dark  Brown  (the  darkest). 
Cotton,  200  lbs. 

50  lbs.  Cutch, 

25  lbs.  Extract  Logwood, 
4  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Proceed  as  for  the  above. 
Second  bath.     12  lbs.  Chrome. 
Proceed  as  above,  but  extract  the  cotton  from  this  bath. 


654:  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

Third  bath.      20  lbs.  Chip  Fustic, 

25  lbs.  Camwood. 
Boil  these  for  one  and  a  half  hours  :  enter  cotton,  and  boil 
one  hour;  draw  off,  and  wash  the  cotton. 
For  the  next  two  hundred  pounds,  add 
40  lbs.  Cutch, 

20  lbs.  Extract  Logwood,  and 
3  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol, 
and  proceed  as  before.     The  other  two  baths  will  have  to  be 
made  fresh  every  time.     These  two  are  the  darkest  browns 
that  we  ever  colored. 


^lixoR  Shades  of  Browns  —  Red-Fawn. 
Cotton,  230  lbs. 

10  lbs.  Cutch, 

10  lbs.  Camwood. 
Boil  these  drugs  for  one  hour ;   then-  enter  the   cotton  and 
boil  one  hour  longer ;  then  dissolve  in  a  barrel   of  the  dyeing 
liquor —  • 

3  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol.  | 

Throw  in  this  solution  and  pole  the  cotton  well  for  twenty 
minutes.     Let  it  remain  in  the  liquor  all  night,  then  draw  otF. 

Salmon-Fawn. 
Cotton,  180  lbs. 

25  lbs.  Cutch, 
5  lbs.  Extract  of  Fustic, 

5  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood, 

4  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol.. 

Proceed  as  for  the  last  recipe,  only  let  it  slay  in  the  liquor 
all  night  before  finishing  it  off;  then 
Finish  in  a  fresh  bath  with  — 

6  lbs.  Bichromate  of  Potash. 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  655 

Enter  the  cotton  at  a  boiling  heat;  leave  it  in  two  or  three 
hours ;  take  out  and  wash  it  off.  You  can  keep  the  first 
liquor  for  further  use  by  atkling  two-thirds  of  each  article  for 
every  180  lbs.  of  cotton,  and  finish  ofi'as  for  the  first  180  lbs. 

*  Another  Fawn. 

Cotton,  180  lbs. 

25  lbs.  Cutch, 
5  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Enter  the  cotton  and  boil  one  hour ;  let  it  stay  in  all  night ; 
in  the  morning  take  out  and  drain  well ;    then 
Finish  in  a  fresh  bath  with — 

5  11)S.  Chrome. 
Enter  at  a  boiling  heat ;  let  it  remain  in  two  hours  ;    then 
take  out  and  wash  the  cotton, 

Crab-Fawn. 
Cotton,  200  lbs. 

10  lbs.  Sumac, 
35  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood, 
50  lbs.  Cutch, 
2  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Boil  the  cotton  one  hour;  leave  it  in  all   night;  next  day 
finish  oif  in  a  fi  esh  bath  of — 
4  lbs.  Chrome, 
4  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Boil  the  cotton  fifteen  minutes:  draw  oflTand  wash  the  cot- 
ton.    Keep  the  first  liquor,  and  for  the  next  200  lbs.  of  cotton 
add  to  the  first  bath — 
8  lbs.  Sumac, 
25  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood, 
35  lbs.  Cutch, 
2  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Proceed  as  above,  and  in  the  finishing  bath  use   the  same 
amount  of  chrome  and  blue  vitriol. 


656  THE   AMEKICAN^   DYER. 

Sage  Color. 
Cotton,  175  lbs. 

8  lbs.  Chrome, 
8  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Enter  the  »cotton   and   boil  one  hour ;  let  it  remain  in  the 
liquor  overnight.     Drain  or  extract  the  water  out  of  the  eon- 
ton  before  entering  it  into  the  finishing  solution. 
Finish  off  with — 

12  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood, 
25  lbs.  Extract  of  Fustic. 
After  these  materials  are  dissolved,  enter  the  cotton  and 
boil  one  hour ;  leave  it  in  as  long  as  convenient. 

Claret. 
Cotton,  100  lbs. 

40  lbs.  Sumac. 

Boil  out  the  sumac ;  then  enter  the  cotton  and  boil  long 
enough  to  saturate  the  cotton,  and  let  it  remain  in  this  solu- 
tion all  night ;  draw  off;  drain  or  extract  the  cotton;  then, 
in  a  fresh  bath  of  cold  water,  add  enough  muriate  of  tin  to 
make  it  indicate  2°  by  Twaddle's  hydrometer;  enter  the 
cotton,  pole  it  up  well,  and  let  it  remain  in  for  two  or  three 
hours  ;  take  it  out  and  wash  it  off  well. 

Then  finish  in  a  bath  with  fifty  lbs.  chip  logwood.  After 
boiling  the  logwood  one  and  a  half  hours,  take  out  the  bags 
and  add  four  lbs.  ahim  ;  then  enter  the  cotton  and  boil  for 
one  hour ;  leave  it  in  an  hour  or  two,  then  draw  off. 

Another  Claret. 
Cotton,  100  lbs. 

Work  the  cotton  as  absv^  in — 
25  lbs.  Cutch. 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  657 

Then  in  the  muriate  of  tin  bath  as  above ;  and 
Finish  off  with — 

75  lbs.  Chip  Logwood, 
4  lbs.  Alum. 
Proceed  in  all   respects  as  for  the  last  recipe.     These  two 
colors  are  2)erf edit/  fast,  and  are  very  bright  and  clear.     These 
recipes  were  obtained  from  Richard  Sager  of  Rochdale,  Eng. 


Olives. 
In  coloring  the  diflferent  shades  of  olive  we  incline  them 
from  the  true  olive  towards  the  brown  shade,  by  using  more 
cutch,  and  towards  the  green  shade,  by  using  more  fustic  or 
sumac ;  but  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  fustic  will  rise  in 
the  after-working,  giving  out  its  yellow  when  fulled.  The 
olives  rank  next  to  blacks  for  depth  and  intensity  of  hue,  and 
requires  a  great  amount  of  dyestuffs  to  color  it  upon  cotton. 


Green-Olive. 

Cotton,  200  lbs. 

50  lbs.  Cutch, 

60  lbs.  Extract  Fustic. 
Leave  the  cotton  in  the  tub  all  night ;  next  morning  fish  it 
out  and  extract  it,  and  then  add  to  the  liquor 

20  lbs.  Extract  Logwood, 

10  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol, 

10  lbs.  Soda-ash. 
After  the  liquor  has  ceased  foaming,  enter  the  cotton  (after 
having  it  shook  up  well)  quickly,  and  pole  up  well.  Boil 
half  an  hour,  and  let  it  remain  in  the  liquor  as  long  as 
convenient.  By  commencing  in  the  afternoon  with  the  first 
dip,  we  can  color" t^vo  hundred  pounds  per  day.  For  the 
next  two  hundred  pounds  of  cotton,  reduce  the  materials  in 
each  dip  one-fifth,  and  proceed  as  before. 

83 


658  THE    A]VIERICAN   DYEE. 

Yellow-Olive. 

Cotton,  200  lbs.     First  dip. 

25  lbs.  Cutch, 
10  lbs.  Sumac, 

4  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 

Enter  cotton  at  a  boil,  and  pole  up  well.  Boil  one  hour, 
and  leave  in  as  long  as  possible  (two  or  three  hours  at  least) . 
Extract  the  cotton. 

Fresh  bath,  or  second  dip. 

5  lbs.  Chrome, 

3  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Enter  cotton  at  a  boiling  heat,  and  pole  up  well.    Let  it  re- 
main in  this  solution  from  one-half  to  one  hour,  and  draw  off. 
Extract  the  cotton. 
Third  dip. 

15  lbs.  Extract  Fustic, 
3  lbs.  Extract  Logwood, 

2  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 

Enter  the  cotton,  boil  one  hour,  and  leave  it  in  as  long  as 
convenient.  Shake  up  the  cotton  before  entering  it  from  one 
tub  to  the  other. 

For  the  next  two  hundred  pounds  of  cotton  add  to  the  first 
tub 

20  lbs.  Cutch, 
8  lbs.  Sumac, 

3  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 

Second  dip  or  tub,  proceed  as  above,  as  this  solution  will 
always  have  to  be  thrown  away. 

Third  dip.     Add  to  the  third  tub  or  -finish  liquor, 
10  lbs.  Extract  Fustic, 
2  lbs.  Extract  Logwood, 
1  lb.    Blue  Vitriol. 
Proceed  in  all  these  operations  as  for  the  first  two  hundred 
pounds. 


THE   AMERICAN   DYER.  659 


Olive. 
Cotton,  250  lbs. 

Tannin  process,  or  first  dip. 
35  lbs.  Cutch, 
18  lbs.  Sumac, 
5  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Enter  and  boil  one  hour.     Leave  in  all  night.     Heave  out 
and  save  the  liquor  for  further  use. 

Mordant  Process. 
8  lbs.  Chrome, 
5  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Enter  the  cotton  at  a  boiling  heat,  pole  up  well,  and  leave  in 
two  or  three  hours.     Draw  otF,  and  extract  the  cotton. 

Dyeing  Process, 
15  lbs.  Extract  Logwood, 
30  lbs.  Extract  Fustic, 
8  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Enter  cotton  at  a  boiling  heat,  pole  up  well,' and  let  the  cot- 
ton remain  in  this  solution  as  long  as  possible.       If  a  greener 
shade  is  wanted,  use  more  blue  vitriol  in  the  dyeing  process. 
The  third  tub,  or  the  dyeing  process  liquor  can  be  saved  for  a 
second  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  cotton,  by  adding  to 
it  two-thirds  of  the  materials;  but  for  the  second  two  hun- 
dred and  tifty  pounds  of  cotton  you  must  add  to  the  first  tub 
or  tannin  process 

25  lbs.  Cutch, 
12  lljs.  Sumac, 
3  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Proceed  as  for  the  first  two  himdred  and  fifty  pounds.    This 
is  the  best,  although  the  most  laborious  and  expensive ;  but 
it  can  be  relied  upon  at  all  times  as  being  permanent. 


660  THE   A3IEEICAN   DYER. 

Another.  Olive. 
Cotton,  225  lbs. 

10  lbs.  Sumac, 
16  lbs.  Extract  Fustic, 
8  lbs.  Extract  Logwood, 
5  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Enter  the  cotton  as  before  enjoined,  and  leave  in  all  night. 
Take  out  the  cotton  and  air  it  well,  then  shake  it  up  well. 
Add  to  the  liquor, 

2  lbs.  Extract  Logwood, 

4  lbs.  Soda-ash, 

5  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 

Enter  cotton,  pole  up  well,  and  boil  twenty  minutes.     Let 
it  remain  in  a  few  hours. 

Second  dyeing  in  same  liquor.     Same  amount  of  cotton. 
8  lbs.  Sumac, 
12  lbs.  Extract  Fustic, 

6  lbs.  Extract  Logwood, 

3  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Proceed  as  above,  and  then  add 

2  lbs.  Extract  Logwood, 

2  lbs.  Soda-ash, 

3  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 

Proceed  in  all  respects  as  for  the  first  tubful. 

Drabs,  or  Minor  Shades  of  Olives. — Stone  Drab. 
Cotton,  225  lbs. 

25  lbs.  Cutch, 

4  lbs.  Extract  Logwood, 

3  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 

Boil  the  cotton  one  hour ;  and  then  sadden  with 

4  lbs.  Copperas. 

Proceed  the  same   as  for   Dark    Slate.      Let    the    cotton 
remain  in  all  nisrht. 


THE  amerioa;n^  dyer.  661 

Dark  Drab. 
Cotton,  210  lbs. 

40  lbs.  Cutch, 
6  lbs.  Extract  Logwood, 

4  lbs.  Extract  Fustic, 

5  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 

Proceed  as  for  Dark  Slate ;  then  sadden  with 

4  lbs.  Copperas. 
Leave  in  all  night. 

Red-Drab. 
Cotton,  250  lbs. 

35  lbs.  Cutch, 
18  lbs.  Sumac, 

5  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 

Boil  the  cotton  one  hour ;  leave  in  all  night.  Next  morn- 
ing fish  out  the  cotton,  and  save  the  liquor  for  another  two 
hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  cotton,  by  adding  two-thirds  of 
the  above  amount  of  materials. 

In  a  fresh  bath,  dissolve 
8  lbs.  Chrome, 
•  5  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Enter  the  cotton  ;  pole  it  up  well ;  do  not  boil  it.     Let  the 
cotton  remain  in  this  solution  two  or  three  hours ;  draw  oif, 
take  out  the  cotton,  and  wash  it  off. 


Silver-Drab, 
Cotton,  225  lbs. 

10  lbs.  Cutch, 
1  lb.    Extract  Logwood. 


662  THE   AMERICAN   DTEK. 

"When  these  are  all  dissolved,  add 

3  lbs.  Copperas, 

1  lb.    Blue  Vitriol. 

After  they  are  dissolved  enter  the  cotton,  and  boil  one  hour. 
Leave  in  all  uis^ht. 

Satin,  or  Pearl  Drab. 

Cotton,  200  lbs. 

4  lbs.  Chip  Logwood, 

5  lbs.  Camwood. 

Boil  these  drugs  one  hour ;  then  enter  the  cotton,  and  boil 
it  one  hour.  Let  the  cotton  remain  in  two  hours  ;  then  draw 
off,  and  till  up  the  tub  again  with  cold  water,  and  let  it  remain 
in  this  all  night. 

All  these  colors  will  rise  by  age,  and  in  the  fulliug  and 
scouring  operation. 

This  will  be  of  a  very  light-blue  drab,  after  it  is  fulled 
and  scoured. 

Another  Red-Drab. 
Cotton,  200  lbs. 

35  lbs.  Cutch, 

6  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol, 

2  lbs.  Copperas. 

After  these  are  all  dissolved,  enter  the  cotton ;  boil  one 
hour,  and  leave  in  all  night. 


Yellow. 
This  color  is  seldom  called  for,  its  principal  use  being  for 
mixtures,  and  that  in  very  small  quantities.  The  color  being 
dyed  with  fustic,  is  very  cheap,  and  is  sufficiently  permanent 
and  bright  for  almost  all  purposes.  It  can  be  colored  with 
quercitron  bark  or  with  its  extract,  and  with  various  other 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  663 

yellow  coloring  suhstauces.  It  might  be  dyed  by  the  chro- 
mate  of  lead  process  ;  but  if  produced  by  this  process,  it 
Avould  not  resist  the  fulling  and  scouring.  Fustic  being  the 
cheapest  dye,  and  sufficiently  bright  and  durable  to  answer  the 
purpose  of  this  branch  of  dyeing,  it  will  probably  be  the  only 
article  that  will  be  generally  employed  for  colcuing  raw  cot- 
ton or  cotton-waste. 

Yellow. 
Cotton,  210  lbs. 

25  lbs.  Extract  Fustic, 
10  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Enter  the  cotton,  and  boil  one  and  a  half  hours;  leave  it 
in  all  night.     In  the  morning,  fish  out  the  cotton,  and  wash  off 
and  dry.     Save  this  liquor,  as  you  can  color  in  it  for  an  indefi- 
nite length  of  time. 

For  the  second  dyeing,  same  amount  of  cotton,  add  to  the 
above  liquor, 

18  lbs.  Extract  Fustic, 

7  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 

Proceed  in  every  respect  as  for  the  first  dyeing. 

This  color  is  perfectly  fast.  We  can  take  another  course 
in  dyeing  by  this  process,  by  dividing  it  into  two  operations  ; 
thus, — 

17  lbs.  Extract  of  Fustic, 
6  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 

Enter  the  cotton  and  boil  one  and  a  half  hours;  let  it  re- 
main in  the  solution  another  hour ;  then  fish  out  the  cotton 
and  strengthen  up  the  solution  with  the  rest  of  the  mate- 
rials ;  thus, — 

8  lbs.  Extract  of  Fustic, 
4  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 

Re-enter  the  cotton  and  boil  one  hour,  and  leave  it  iu  the 
solution  overnight. 


664:  THE    AMEKICAX   DYER. 

This  process  occupies  more  time,  and  requires  more  labor, 
than  to  color  off  at  one  dip  ;  yet  it  is  the  best  method,  as  the 
color  is  richer  than  when  produced  at  one  operation. 

Yon  can  spring  the  fustic  with  about  two  pounds  of  soda  as 
with  the  fustic,  being  careful  when  you  add  the  blue  vitriol 
afterwards. 

Another  Method. 
Cotton,  200  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

5  lbs.  Chrome, 
5  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol, 
8  lbs.  Alum. 
Enter  the  cotton  at  a  boil ;  pole  up  well  and  boil  one  and  a 
half  hours ;  leave  it  in  the  solution  all  night.     In  the  morn- 
ing take  it  out  and  extract  it  thoroughly  ;  shake  it  up  well ; 
then  enter  it  into  the  finishing  bath. 

Finish  with — 

120  lbs.  Chip  Fustic. 

Bag  the  fustic  and  boil  it  one  and  three-fourths  hours ; 
take  out  the  ba^s  and  add  five  lbs.  blue  vitriol.  Enter  the 
cotton,  pole  up  well,  and  boil  one  hour.  Let  it  remain  in  the 
solution  all  night. 

Blue. 
The  deepest  and  most  permanent  shades  of  blue  on  cotton 
are  those  that  are  produced  by  the  tannin,  mordanting,  and 
dyeing  processes.  They  will  resist  the  fulling  and  scouring 
process  remarkably  well,  and  lose  but  a  little  of  their  bloom, 
but  the  bloom  can  be  kept  up  by  using  one-sixth  of  the  amount 
of  logwood  used  in  the  dyeing  process  of  hypernic-wood  ;  that 
is,  supposing  we  are  using  120  lbs.  of  logwood  to  produce 
the  shade  we  want,  instead  of  that  we  must  use  100  lbs.  of 
logwood  and  20  lbs.  of  hypernic-wood.  The  first  recipe  for 
blue  is  the  best  and  most  permanent  one  given  in  this  work, 


THE    AMERICAN    DYER.  66o 

all  the  others  being  mere  imitations,  and  in  no  case  do  they 
equal,  in  richness  or  durability,  the  tannin,  mordanting,  and 
dyeing  process. 

The  other  recipes  answer  very  well  for  cheap  goods.  ' 

Blue. 

Cotton,  230  lbs. 

20  lbs.  Cutch, 
2^  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
Boil  the  cotton  one  hour ;  let  it  remain  in  the  solution  six 
hours,  or  overnight.     In  a  fresh  bath  dissolve — 
8  lbs.  Chrome, 
8  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol, 

4  lbs.  Alum. 

Shake  up  the  cotton,  enter  it  and  boil  half  an  hour;  let  it 
remain  in  the  solution  overnight;  in  the  morning  extract   it 
thoroughly.     Then 
Finish  off  with — 

35  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood  (or  185  lbs.  Chip  Log- 
wood), 

5  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 

Shake  up  the  cotton  well  and  enter  it  rapidly  ;  pole  up 
well ;  boil  half  an  hour ;  then  let  it  remain  in  the  solution 
as  long  as  it  improves  in  color. 

[We  will  here  state  that  whenever  the  blue  vitriol  is  to  be 
used  in  the  dyeing  process,  it  should  not  be  added  until  after 
the  coloring-matters  are  boiled  out.] 

Blue  (for  jeans,  a  good  one). 
Cotton,  200  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

7  lbs.  Chrome, 

7  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol, 

5  lbs.  Alum. 

84 


666  THE    AMERICAN   DYER. 

Boil  the  cotton  in  this  for  one  and  a  half  hours  ;  let  it  re- 
main in  the  solution  overnight ;  take  it  out  and  extract  it 
well.     Shake  up  the  cotton,  then  finish  off  with — 
100  lbs.  Logwood  (Chips), 
10  lbs.  Hypernic-wood, 
2  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 

After  boiling  the  woods  one  and  a  half  hours,  take  out  the 
bags,  and  dissolve  the  blue  vitriol,  and  add  it  to  the  solution. 
Rake  up  the  tub,  and  enter  the  cotton  smartl}^  and  pole  up 
quickl}^  and  boil  for  half  an  hour ;  then  leave  it  in  as  long  as 
the  color  improves.  In  coloring  by  this  recipe,  the  cotton 
must  be  handled  quickly  in  getting  it  saturated  with  dyeing 
matters,  as  it  is  very  difficult  to  get  the  cotton  evenly  dyed. 


A  Lighter  Blue. 
Cotton,  200  lbs. 

Prepare  with — 

6  lbs.  Chrome, 
6  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol, 

4  lbs.  Alum. 

Finish  with — 

75  lbs.  Logwood  (Chips), 

5  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 

Proceed  in  every  respect  as  for  Blues  on  page  665. 


Blue. 
Cotton,  200  lbs. 

15  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood,  |^^ 

8  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol.  JBp 

Enter  the  cotton,  and  boil  one  and  a  half  hours  ;  pole  it  up 
well.     After  remaining  in  as  long  as  time  will  admit  (two  or 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  667 

three  hours),  fish  out  the  cotton,  let  it  drain  as  long  as  con- 
venient, then  add  to  the  sohition — 

5  lbs.  Extract  of  Logwood, 

3  lbs.  Extract  of  Hyperuic   (or  15  lbs.    Hypernic 
Chips, 

7  lbs.  Soda-ash, 

7  lbs.  Blue  Vitriol. 
After  the  ash  and  blue  vitriol  are  dissolved  (which  must  be 
done  separately),  and  the  liquor  has  ceased  foaming,  re-enter 
the  cotton  aiid  boil  half  an  hour.  Let  the  cotton  remain  in 
the  solution  over  night.  Fish  out  the  cotton,  and  save  the 
liquor  for  further  use.  In  coloring  a  second  or  more  tubfuls 
(200  lbs.),  proceed  in  every  respect  as  above,  only  reduce 
the  materials  one-fifth  for  each  200  lbs.  of  cotton. 


I  ]^  D  E  X. 


PART    FIRST. 

Page 

Introduction  to  First  Edition, 3 

Preface  to  Second  Edition, 5 

Dyeing  and  Mordants, 10 

The  Nature  of  Colors, 25 

The  Pxoperties  of  Colors  and  their  Relation  to  Dyeing,       ...  28 

Calico-printing, 46 

Alumina,  Acetate  of, 58-66 

Nitrate  of, 65 

Pyrol  ignite  of, 58 

Precipitated, 60 

Alizarine,  Artificial, 129 

Blacks,  Eecipes  for, 70-76 

Iron  Liquor  for, 58 

Oxidized  Logwood  Liquor  for, 62 

Blues,  Eecipes  for,    .        . 92-96 

Indigo  Precipitate  for  fast, 68 

Tin  Solution  for  fast,     .        .        • 68 

Buffs,  Eecipes  for, 104, 105 

Cftseine,  Solutions  of, 87, 88 

Catechu,  Eecipes  for, 106-111 

Chocolates,  Recipes  for, 77-81 

Blue,  Standard  for, 60 

Cochineal,  Ammoniacal  Solution  of, 62 

Chrome,  Acetate  of, 125 

Alum, 67 

Sulphate  of,     . 61-66 

Tungstate  of, 75 

Orange  Pigment 64 

Grays,  Recipes  for, 112-114 

Iron  Comi)osition  for, 62 

Standard  for, 60 

Greens,  Recipes  for, 96-100 

Blue  Preparation  for, 62 

Indigo  Precipitate  for, 68 

Tin  Solution  for, 68 


670  THE   A3IERICAN   DYER. 

J  Page 

Indigo,  Acetate  of, 61 

Precipitated, 68 

Suli.hate  of, 65 

Iron,  Acetate  of  Protoxide  of, 59-67 

Standard  for  Modes, 65 

Standard  for  Nankeens, 59 

Standard  for  Purples, 59 

Liquor  for  Blacks, 58,  59 

Composition  for  Grays,          ........  62 

Pyroliyuite  of, 58 

Muriate  of, 62 

Nitrate  of, 64 

Lead,  Basic  Acetate  for  Orange, 60 

Orange  Chroruate  of, 64 

Logwood  Liquor,  Oxidized  for  Black, 62 

Oxidized  for  Gray, 60 

Madder  Extracts, 120-124 

Modes,  Recipes  for, 115-117 

Iron  Standard  for, 65 

Mordants, 58-61 

Nankeens,  Straws  and  Buffe,  Kecipes  for, 104-106 

Standard  for, 59,  60 

Olives,  Kecipes  for, 115 

Oranges,  Recipes  for, 100-103 

Lead  Standard  for, 60 

Sapan  Liquor  for, 68 

Tin  Composition  for,      .........  63 

Pinks,  Recipes  for, 65-85 

Pigment,  Sapan, 61 

Chrome  Orange, 64 

Potash,  Chloride  of, 69 

Purples,  Recipes  for, 88-91 

Iron  Standard  for, 59 

Rose,  Recipes  for,      ...........  85-88 

Reds,  Recipes  for, 82-84 

Reserves  and  Discharges,  Recipes  for, 117-120 

Sapan,  Pigment, 63 

Liquor  Oxidized, 68 

Scarlet,  Tin  Composition  for, 63 

Soda,  Chloride  of, 65-69 

Tin,  Compositi<m  for  Scarlet, 63 

Composition  for  Orange, 63 

Composition  for  Fast  Green, 68 

Oxide  of, 62 

Priissiate  of, 65 

and  Potash,  Tartrate  of^ 63 


THE   AI^IERICAN   DYEK.  '671 

Page 

Thickenings, 69, 70 

Tragiicautli,  Mucilage  of, 69, 70 

Yellow,  Recipes  for, 103, 104 

Zinc,  Nitrate  of, 65 

Acids,  Remarks  ou, 189 

Acid,  Sulphuric, 196 

Muriatic, 193 

Nitric, 206 

Nitro-Muriatic, 213 

Oxalic, 213 

Gallic, 217 

Citric,      .        .     • 219 

Tartaric, .  223 

Tanuic, 226 

Acetic, 221 

Acetic,  of  Commerce, 231 

Pyroligneous, 233 

Calico,  Remarks  ou  Printing, 46 

Recipes  for  Printing, 58 

Cotton,  Remarks  on  Dyeing  Raw, 36 

Remarks  ou  Yarn  Dyeing, 38 

Remarks  on  Thread  Dyeing, 149 

Recii)es  for  Thread  Dyeing, 151 

Dyestntis,  Treatment  of  iu  Dye-tubs, 143 

Descriptive  Account  of, 240 

Dye-house,  Manual  of  Operation  iu, 141 

Dyeing,  Difterent  Processes  of, 145 

Remarks  on  Silk, 176 

Scouring  Cloth  f<u'  Piece, 136 

Treatuu'ut  of  Pieces  after, 138 

"Wool,  Scouring  of, 133 

Recipes  for  Scour  Liquors  for, 134 

Water, 179 

Nomenclatiire  of  Salts 191 

Rules  for  Namiug  Compounds, 192 


PAKT     SECOND. 

Archil, 240 

Annotto  or  Annatta, 245 

Alizarine, 280 

Ammonia, ....  378 

Sulphate  of, 368 

Alum, 388 

Potash 389 

Auimouia, 389 


672  THE    A]VIERICA^'   DYER. 

Page 

Alum,  Natrona  Porous, 390 

Chrome, 392 

Alumiua,  Sulphate  of, 395 

Acetate  of, 376,  395 

Neutral  Acetate  of, 376 

Argols, 383 

Aurautine, 342 

Barwood, 252 

Brazil-wood  or  Hypernic, 248 

Blue-Vats, 344 

Woad-vat, 349 

Pastel-vat, ?        .        .        .  357 

Potash-vat,    ". 360 

Gerniau-vat, 364 

Bran  or  Madder  Vat, 365 

Ferment  for, 366 

Sal-soda  vat, 367 

How  to  Work, 353 

Bichromate  of  Potash, 411 

Camwood, 255 

Cutch  or  Catechu, 256 

Cochineal,          . 260 

Carmine, 266 

Colorine, 279 

Copper,  Sulphate  of,         ... 405 

Acetate  of, 376,  407 

Nitrate  of, 407 

Chloride  of, 407 

Cotton,  Mordants  for, 375 

Chlorides,  Stannous, 370 

Fustic, 267 

Young, 269 

Flavine, 270 

Flowers  of  Madder, .  278 

Fermentation  of  Woad, 325 

Garancine, 277 

ludigo, 298 

Sulphate  of, 396 

Lead,  Acetate  of,  or  Sugar  of, 376,  401 

Protoxide  of,  or  Litharge, 403 

Litharge, 403 

Lac-dye, 288 

Logwood 283 

Madder, 272 

Flowers  of, 278 

Products  of, 277 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  673 

Pagk 

Muiijeet, 307 

Murexide, 310 

Nitrate  of  Irou, 375 

^'"tgalls, 296 

Potash,  Yellow  Prussiate  of, 4O8 

Red  Prussiate  of, 410 

Purpurine, 281 


Pastel. 


317 


Quercitron-bark, 287 

Sanders,  Red, 291 

Sumac 293 

Safflower, gU 

Sal-ammoniac, 3g0 

Sulphate  of  Iron  (Copperas), 414 

Spirits,  Scarlet, 374 

K«il, 377 

Barwood, 377 

Plumb, 373 

For  Aniline  Colors  on  Cotton-yarn, 378 

Soda, 419 

^^^' 421 

Carbonate  of, 423 

Crystallized  Carbonate  of, 425 

Caustic, 424 

Sulphate  of, 425 

Staimate  of, 428 

Aluminate  of, 392 

'^^^> 368 

Solutions  of, 375 

How  to  make  Solutions  of, 37O 

Muriate  of, 372 

Murio-snlphate  of, '   .        .        .  373 

Murio-sulphate  of,  for  Lac-dye 373 

Nitro-muriate  of, 374 

Solutions  of,  for  Purpurine, 283 

Nitrate  of, 375 

Crystals  of, 373 

Tannin, 33^ 

Tartarine, 3ug 

Tartar,  Cream  of, 3^3 

Turmeric, 271 

Valonia  or  Valona  Nuts, 214 

Vegetable  Substances  used  in  Dyeing  that  contain  Tannin,  340 

Weld  or  Wold, '  315 

Woad ".'.'.'.  319- 

Fermentation  of, *  305 

86 


674  THE   AMERICAN   DYER. 


PART    THIRD. 

Fauk 

Ali>liabetical  Table  of  Elements  and  their  Symbols,    ....  4:i<5 

Coal-tar  Colors, 442 

Aniline  Red, 44G,  482 

Violet, 448 

Blue, 449 

Green, 450 

Yellow, 4.'J1 

Black, 452 

Bismarck  Brown,      . 453 

Carbolic  Acid  Colors, 453 

Picric  Acid, 454 

Phenyl  Brown, 456 

Grenat  Brown, .  457 

Coralline 457,492 

Azuliue, .  458,  492 

Naphthaline, 458 

Naphthylamine, 459 

Martins  Yellow, 459 

MagdalaRed, 460 

Naphthaline  Blue, '    .        .        .  461 

Violet, 461 

History  of  Aniline's  and  Aniline  Colors,         .        .        .         .        .        .  463 

Preparation  of  raw  Materials  derived  from  Coal-tar,  ....  475 

Benzine,     . 475 

Toluene, •  .  475 

Xylene, 475 

Aniline, 477 

Toluidine 477 

Methylaniline, 479 

Ethyl  aniline, 479 

Pbenic  Acid, 480 

Naphthaline, 480 

Anthracene, 480 

Preparation  of  Various  Colors  derived  from  Aniline,          .        .        .  482 

Aniline  Red, 446,  483 

Roseaniline, 483 

Fuchsine,  Roseiue,  or  Magenta, 483 

Aniline  Blue, 485 

Imperial  Violet, 485 

Hoffmann's  Violets, 487 

Aldehyde  Green, 488 

Colors  derived  from  Compounded  Anilines, 489 

Paris  Violet, 489 

Diph'euylamine  Blue, 490 


THE    AMERICAN   DYER.  675 

Page 
Aniline  Black, 452  41)0 

Coloi-s  derived  from  Pbouic  Acid, 492 

Derived  from  Naplitliiiline, 492 

Derived  from  Anthracene, 492 

Rosealic  Acid, 492 

Najdithaliue  Scarlet, 49;^ 

Artificial  Alizarine, 494 

Improvements  and  Discoveries  in  Coal-tjir  Colors,       ....  496 

Inventions  and  Progresses, 49^ 

Substitntion  of  Methlaniline  Violet  for  Roseaniline,  for  the  Mann- 

factnre  of  Night-Green, 50q 

Mannfactnre  of  Nitrate  of  Methyle, 5O2 

New  Process  of  Coloring  Night-Green, 502 

Maunfacture  without  Iodine,  of  Night-Green, 501 

Results  of  Improvements  made  by  Poirrier  and  his  Cbemists,    .         .  504 

Cheapness  and  Improvements  in  Quality  of  the  Colors,      .        .        .  506 

PART    FOURTH. 

Glossary  of  Technical  Terms  and  Chemical  Names,     ....  515 

Remarks  on  Piece-Dyeing 13(3  535 

on  Wool  Dyeing, 5(jl 

on  Cotton- Yarn  Dyeing, gU 

on  Woolen- Yarn  Dyeing, (526 

on  Cotton-Waste  Dyeing, g3g 

Recipes  for  Speck-Dyes, '  529 

for  Piece-Dyeing, 53g 

for  Felt-Dyeing, 548 

French, 537 

German, 594 

for  Cotton-Yarn  Dyeing,    .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .  qh 

for  Woolen- Yarn  Dyeing, 626 

for  Cotton- Waste  Dyeing, 639 

Samples  of  Cloth, 532 

of  Wool, 55(j   ' 

of  Cotton-Yarn, (502 

Tables  of  Prime  Equivalents  or  proportions  of  Dyestuffs  and  Chemi- 
cal Salts,  to  produce  colors, 512-514 

French,  of, 512 

Symbols  of, 525 


Index, 


669 


ERRATA. 

The  recipe  for  rich,  full  blue,  on  page  541,  should  read, — 
Prepare  with — 

13  lbs.  Alum, 
4  lbs.  Oxalic  Acid. 
Boll  cloth  If  hours  ;  next,  dry  finish  with  60  pounds  chip  logwood.     Boil 
the  logwood  1|  hours  ;  take  out  the  bags,  and  cool  down  ;  then  add 
1  quart  Scarlet  Spirits, 
1  pint    Ammonia. 
Rake  up  well;  enter  cloth,  and  boil  14^  hours  ;  take  out,  air  well,  wash  off. 
On  page  641.     "  To   every  pound  of  nitric  acid,  40=  Fahr.,"  should  read 
"  40°  Twaddle." 


R  WOODMAN  &  CO., 

SOLE     AGENTS      FOR     THE 

AMEKICAN  DYEE. 

ENLARGED  AIS^D  REVISED 

BY 

RICHARD    II.    GIBSON, 

Practical  ©get  anti  ffl^ijemtst. 


DEALERS     IN 


INDIGO,  COCHINEAL, 


a ^ 


DYEWOODS  &  DYESTUFFS, 

44  KILBY  STREET, 

p.  O.  Box  3674.  BOSTOiT,  HVEJ^SS. 


JUV 


•) 


MANLTACTCRERR    OF 


DYEWOODS,  DYEWOOD  LIQUORS  AND  EXTRACTS, 


IMPOUTERS    AND    DEALERS    IN 


iiifio,i;oiiAi*iiiiEfi,cncA 

AND    DYE    STUFFS    GENERALLY, 


U 


106  and  108  MILK,  corner  KILBY  STREET,  BOSTON. 


SOLE     AGENTS     FOR     NEW     ENGLAND     FOR 


A.   Poirrler's  Aniline  Dyes,  Archil,  Cudbear,  (Stc. 


AGENTS    FOR 


Shrewsbury  Flavine,  Bark  Ext.  and  Liquor, 
Wilkinson's  Extract  Indigo. 

Works  at  Church,  near  Accrington,  Lancashire,  Eng. 


EXTRACT    LOGWOOD    IN  POUND,  HALF-POUND,  ASSORTED  AND 
QUARTER-POUND   PACKAGES,  ^OB  DRUGGISTS'    USE. 


MANUFACTURERS  of  HEMATEIN, 

More  soluble  than  Logwood  Liquor  or  Extract  Logwood.      Send  for  samples. 


SAMPLES    OF   POIRRIER'S   ANILINES  FOR  TESTING,  WILL  BE  FORWARDED 
WITHOUT   CHARGE,    WHEN    ORDERED. 


Henry  A.  Could. 

ESTABLISHED.  1861. 

N0S.99&IOI  Milk,  COR.  Pearl  St. 
BOSTON. 

IMPORTER  OF  THE  SPECIALTIES 

INDIGaCUTCkiilERGOC^ 

Sole  U.S. Agent 
"Berlin  Pure  Aniline  Colors,  Oils  &  Salts. 
Archil  &;DYEWoqp  Extracts. 

-•OUR  AIM  IS  STANDARD  GOODS  AT  CLOSE  RATES. 


SEND  FOR  PRICE  LIST. 


BRANCH  AT  NEW  YORK. 


F.   H.  HADDOCKS, 


liip 


r!l 


GENERAL   DYESTDFFS, 


No.  14f   Milk  Street,   Boston,   Mass. 

Thd  attention  of  Mannfacturers  iisinj^  tlic  article  is  called  to  the  fact  that 
nearly  two-thirds  of  the  entire  shipment  of  Indigo  to  America  finds  its  mar- 
ket in  this  City  ;  and  the  advertiser  respectfully  submits  that,  with  his  con- 
uecticms,  he  is  able  to  send,  on  application,  samples  with  prices,  which  can- 
not be  excelled,  quality  and  price  considered. 


ITil  POKOUS  M 

FOR 


PAPER  MAKERS. 


Fifty  per  ct.  Stronger  than  Lump  Alum, 

AND  TWO   LBS.   OF   IT   WILL  DO   THE   W^ORK  AS 
WELL  AS   THREE   LBS.   OF  LUMP. 


//  i/o^s  not  contain    Stdphate   of  Potash    or  Ammonia,  afid  is  free 
from  Iron  and  excess  of  Acid. 


MANUFACTURED  BY 


111  flKISILfiim  S41.f  I'll 

140  South  Delaware  Avenue, 


PHILADELPHIA,    PA. 


MOEEY  &  CO.,  Agents,    .    .    .    Boston,  Mass. 
E.  L.  EMBREE,  Agent,      ...    New  York. 


POIRRIER'S  ANILINE  DYES. 

ROLLINS,  SHAW  &  CO., 

-A.  O  E  IT  T  S. 

We  are  the  only  autliorizecl  Agents  west  of  Philadelphia.  All  Western 
Mills  can  Imy  these  Anilines  in  Chicago  at  the  same  jjrices  and  terms  as 
Ea«t. 

Office,  186  and  188  Fifth  Avenue, 

WHOLESALE  DEALERS  IN 

WOOL,  DYESTUFFS, 

AND 

dvlilij    sxj:p:fxjIES. 

AND  MANUFACTURERS  OF 

SHODDIES     OF    ALL    GRADES. 

I^"  Send  for  samples  and  prices. 


mmmmEWTmm 
COTTON^   MILLS   CO., 


MANUFACTURERS  OF 


SEAMLESS  COTTON  BAGS, 


Jl'iUji      _M.iM!jLii       Lj'iijijy[«iijT^jj2^|j[yi 


Warps,  Twines,  Batting  and  Wadding. 


CANADA. 


36 


E.  K.  STREET  &  CO., 


DEALERS    IN 


ACIDS,    CHEMICALS,    OILS, 


till  Irps,  hi  Oiiiij,  Miii 


-AND- 


WOOLEN  MILL  SOPPLIES  OF  EVERY  DESCRIPTION. 


A.GE1VTS     FOR 

GEORGE    CROMPTOIV.     Looms,  Shuttles,   &c. 

Cr,EVEI>A]VI>    MACmiVE    WORKS.     Cards,  Jacks,  Mules,  Twisters,  &c, 

1>AVIS    &,    FURBER.     Cards,  Jacks,  Twisters,  Looms,  &c. 

PARKS    <fe    WOOIiSOIV    MACHIIVE    CO.     Finishing  Machinery. 

RODNEY    HUBTT    MACHIIVE    CO.     Fulling  Mills,  Washers,    Water  Wheels. 

R.    S.    ROTS.      Patent  Improved  Traverse  Grinders. 

CHAPIIV    MACtellVE    CO.     Wood  and  Hard  End  Pickers. 

And  other  first-class  Builders  of  Machinery.   Send  for  Quotations. 

MANUFACTURERS    OF 

Broad  Reeds,  Narrow  Reeds,  Lease  Reeds, 

SECTION  REEDS,  CARPET  REEDS,  &c. 


196  and  198  MONROE  ST.,  cor.  FIFTH  AVE., 

CHICAGO,    ILL. 


Western  Manufacturers  and  Dyers   can  obtjiin  through  us  copies  of  the  American  Dyer. 


